LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALSWORTH. 

Received  October,  18^4. 
Jiccessions^o.SjfO^lo'      Class  No. 


EDUCATION 


■ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

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http://www.arcliive.Org/details/elementaryviewof00spurricl:L 


A 

VIEW 

OF    THE 

ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES 

OF 

EDUCATION, 

FOUNDED    ON    THE  ^ 

STUDY  OF  THE  NATURE  OF  MAN.. 


BY  G.  SPURZHEIM,  M.  D. 

OF    THE    UNIVERSITIES    OF    VIENNA    AND    PARIS,    AND    LICENTIATE 
OF  THE   ROYAL    COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS    IN    LONDON. 


SECOND  AMERICAN  EDITION. 
Revued  and  Improved  by  the  Author,  from  the  Third  London  Edition. 

B  O  S  T  O  N  :  S;^^^  J 

MARSH,    CAP  EN,    AND    LTON. 
1833. 


\%23 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832, 
by  Marsh,  Capen,  c^-  Lyon,  in  the  Clerk's  oli;ce  of 
the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


The  most  importaiit  point  in  Anthropology,  or  the 
study  of  Man,  is  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  his  Na- 
ture ;  and  the  next,  to  discover  the  mode  in  which 
his  physical  and  mental  constitution  may  be  most 
advantageously  improved.  Men  of  eminent  tal- 
ents have  considered  the  principles  of  education 
worthy  of  their  attention  ;  and  many  works  have 
been  already  published  on  this  subject.  It  may 
therefore  be  asked,  Why  should  another  be  pre- 
sented ?  Because  education  is  still  conducted  in  a 
manner  very  different  from  that  in  which  it  ought 
to  be.  Mankind  has  improved  less  than  we  could 
wish.     "  There  are  many  books,"  says  Helvetii  s, 

"  many  schools,  but  few  persons  of  anderstandin  ^ ; 
1* 


^1  PREFACE. 

there  are  many  maxims,  but  they  are  seldom  ap- 
plied ;  man  is  old,  but  still  a  child."  New  eluci- 
dations of  this  subject,  therefore,  are  still  want- 
ing ;  and  I  hope  I  shall  be  able  to  suggest  some 
new  ideas  upon  it.  As,  however,  many  ancient 
and  modern  philosophers  have  examined  this  sub- 
ject, several  of  my  ideas  may  be  found  in  other 
writings  ;  but  nowhere  are  they  reduced  to  the 
principles  which  I  have  adopted,  and  arranged  in 
the  same  order.  I  hope  also  to  succeed  in  point- 
ing out  some  new  objects,  interesting  in  them- 
selves, and  leading  to  important  results. 

This,  no  doubt,  will  produce  opposition.  I  am 
also  aware  of  the  active  influence  of  prejudice, — 
of  old  habits  and  selfish  passions  ;  but  nothing 
shall  deter  me  from  communicating  what  appears 
to  me  to  be  founded  on  the  immutable  laws  of  the 
Creator.  His  authority  is  the  only  one  I  ac- 
knowledge in  natural  history.  Truth  is  independ- 
ent of  time;  it  must  prevail,  though  it  excite  the 
hatred  of  the  ignorant,  the  weak,  and  the  jealous. 

The  reader  is  requested  to  bear  in  mind,  that 
the  language  in  which  this  treatise  is  composed, 
is  to  the  Author  a  foreign  one.     A  person  so  situ- 


PREFACE.  Vll 

ated  is  not  always  a  competent  judge  of  the  nicer 
shades  of  meaning  attaching  to  the  expressions 
which  he  employs ;  and  from  this  circumstance, 
together  with  the  difficulty  of  commanding  words 
to  convey  his  ideas  properly,  he  is  liable  to  be  be- 
trayed into  a  tone  of  abrupt  and  apparently  author- 
itative writing,  quite  foreign  to  his  wish  and  inten- 
tion. To  these  causes  the  reader  is  requested  to 
impute  any  thing  in  the  manner  of  the  following 

pages,  which  may  appear  not  suited  to  the  circum- 
s^tances  or  the  subject. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

General  View.         ------  1 

Definition  of  Education        -         -         -         -  H, 

Perfectibility  of  Man       -----  2 

Improvement  of  mankind  in  arts  and  sciences  4 

In  religion  and  morality,      -         -         -         -  6 

Causes  of  the  want  of  success  in  education      -  11 

Singleness  of  the  human  species           -         -  18 

Utility  of  instruction       -         -         -         -         -  31 

Division  of  education           -         _         _         _  34 

SECT.  I.     CONDITIONS  OF  EXCITEMENT  36 

Chap.  I.     On  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent  37 

Chap.  II.     On   the    laws   of   the  vegetative 

FUNCTIONS                   -          -          _          -  54 

Duration  of  life             -----  5$ 

Period  I.     From  birth  to  two  years,  or  infancy  63 

Temperature                 -         -         -         -         -  63 

Food -  65 


X  CONTENTS. 

Page 

Air           -- 69 

Light 70 

Cleanliness       -         -         -         -         -         -  71 

Sleep,  watching,  rest,  and  bodily  exercise     -  72 

Period  II.     From  two  to  seven  years,  or  childhood  74 

Dentition  Dietetic  rules              -         _         _  iff. 

Chap.  III.     Ox  the  laws  of  exercise       -         -  84 

Habit -  84 

Meaning  of  the  word  exercise            -         -         -  88 

Exercise  of  intellectual  faculties            -         -  91 

of  feeliugs             -----  92 

Signs,  Greek  and  Latin        -         -         -         -  96 

The  means  of  exercising  the  faculties  are  different  114 

Order  of  exercising  the  faculties       -         -         -  116 

Different  success  of  exercise         _         -         -  121 

Mutual  instruction            -----  124 

Exercise  increases  the  organs       -         -         -  130 

Chap.  iV.     Mutual  ixfluexce  of  the  faculties 

AS  means  of  excitement        -         -  133 

Mnemonics          ------  135 

SECT.  II.     ON  THE  DIRECTIOiN  OF  THE 

FACULTIES    -        -        -  140 

Chap.  I.     Importance  of  morality        -         -  141 
Happiness  founded  more  on  morality  than  on 

intellect       _         -         -         -         _         -         -  144 

Chap.  II.     Each  faculty  tends  to  action     -  148 
Regulation  of  the  mode  in  which  gratification 

should  be  sought           -----  151 

Proper  employment  of  the  faculties      -        -  153 


CONTENTS.  m 

Page 

Little  effect  of  precepts            -        -        -        -  154 

Faculties  which  assist  each  other           -         -  155 

Direction  of  amativeness  and  of  religious  feelings  IG'^ 

Objects  of  education    -----  167 

Chap.  III.     Motives  to  action        -         -         -  171 

Superior  faculties  furnish  the  aim  of  our  actions  173 

Different  motives  may  produce  the  same  action  174 

Selfishness  and  approbativeness        -         -         -  173 

Chap.  IV.     Differences  of  natural  endowment  185 
Class  I.     Where  the   superior  faculties   pre- 
dominate     -------  lb. 

Class  II.     Where  one  or  several  inferior,  and 

one  or  several  superior  are  very  active  -  186 
Class  III.  Where  certain  of  the  inferior  facul- 
ties are  strong,  and  all  the  superior  weak  -  ib. 
Class  IV.  Where  all  the  faculties  are  middling  ib. 
Education  to  be  varied  with  different  individuals  188 
Individuals  should  be  placed  in  situations  for 

which  they  are  naturally  fitted       -         -         -  190 

Chap.  V.     Education  op  the  sexes         -        -  205 

Condition  of  women  -----  t6. 
There  is  a  natural    difference   in   the  mental 

powers  of  the  sexes            -        _         -         -  ^07 

Certain  feelings  stronger  in  women  than  in  men  210 
Certain  intellectual   powers  stronger  in    men 

than  in  women     ------  215 

Chap.  VI.     Education  op  nations           -        -  220 

Chap.  VII.     On  public  and  on  private  education  264 

Conclusion      ----___  266 


XU 


CONTENTS, 


APPENDIX. 


Page 

Us  THE  CORRECTION  AND  REFORM  OP  MALEFACTORS  268 

Definition  of  legislation        -         -         -         -  269 

Aim  of  Legislation          -         -         -         -         _  272 

Means  of  preventing  crime             -         _         _  {5 

Means  of  correcting  Malefactors     -         -         -  280 

Treatment  of  incorrigible  offenders       -         -  289 

On  illegal  actions  without  guilt             -         -  294 

I.  Illegal  actions  of  idiots     -         -         -         -  295 

II.  Illegal  actions  of  madmen           -         -         _  299 

On  illegal  actions  which  admit  of  extenuating 

motives            -         -         -         -         -         -  300 

Strong  mental  affections           -         -         -         -  392 

Child-murder 308 

Conclusion        -------  318 


^^r 


ELEMENTARY 


PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


GENERAL    VIEW. 

The  preliminary  points  to  be  considered  in  this 
general  view,  are,  1.  The  definition  of  the  word 
Education ;  2.  The  perfectibility  of  mankind  ; 
3.  The  little  success  which  has  hitherto  attended 
Education  ;  4.  The  singleness  of  the  human  spe- 
cies ; — and,  5.  The  usefulness  of  Education, 

As  to  the  definition  of  Education,  I  think  it 
necessary  to  state,  that  I  intend  to  introduce  in 
this  volume  several  topics,  which  are  not  gene- 
rally considered  as  falling  under  Education,  in 
the  common  acceptation  of  the  word,  merely  de- 
noting instruction  in  literature  and  accomplish- 
ments ;  I  use  this  term  as  embracing  every  means 
which  can  be  made  to  act  upon  the  vegetative, 
affective,  and  intellectual    constitution  of  man, 


»  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

for  the  purpose  of  improving  this  his  threefold 
nature. 

Being  asked  what  I  mean  by  human  nature  ?  I 
reply,  that  it  is  not  body  alone,  nor  mind  alone, 
nor  animal  propensities,  affections,  or  passions  ; 
nor  moral  feelings,  nor  intellect ;  neither  is  it  or- 
ganization in  general,  nor  any  system  of  the  body, 
nor  any  particularity  whatever  ;— -but  human  na- 
ture, in  the  proper  sense  of  the  words,  compre- 
hends all  the  observable  phen^ena  of  life,  from 
the  moment  of  conception  to  that  of  death,  both  in 
the  healthy  and  diseased  state  ;  or,  in  short,  all 
the  manifestations  both  of  the  body  and»mind. 

The  next  introductory  point  to  be  elucidated  is, 
whether  human  nature  is  susceptible  of  perfection 
or  degradation. 

In  speaking  of  the  susceptibility  of  being  per- 
fected, it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  man  may 
lose  one  faculty  and  acquire  another ;  for  the  fun- 
damental nature  of  man  being  unchangeable,  in 
body  as  well  as  in  the  faculties  of  the  mind",  such 
an  event  is  impossible  on  earth.  The  meaning  of 
the  proposition,  therefore,  can  only  be,  whether 
certain  powers  are  capable  of  attaining  greater  or 
less  activity  ; — whether  some  of  them  may  prevail 
over  others ;  and,  whether  the  mutual  influence  of 
the  faculties  and  their  actions  may  be  regulated 
and  well  conducted. 


GENERAL    VIEW.  3 

In  this  latter  signification  alone,  the  answer  is 
aflirmative.  Such  a  perfectibility  exists  in  all 
living  beings.  Certain  qualities  of  plants,  for  in- 
stance, may  be  strengthened,  increased,  weakened, 
or  diminished.  Fruit  trees  may  be  modified  as 
to  their  growth,  or  fruit,  their  produce.  Each 
part  of  the  bodies  of  animals  is  subject  to  great 
variations.  Animals,  also,  are  not  confined  to 
actions  which  their  preservation  requires.  They 
modify  their  conduct  according  to  the  situation  in 
which  they  may  be  placed  ;  hence  they  are  sus- 
ceptible of  a  kind  of  education  .beyond  their  wants. 
Monkeys,  dogs,  horses,  bears,  &c.  can  be  instruct- 
ed to  play  various  tricks.  They  have  also  a 
recollection  of  what  has  happened  to  them,  and 
modify  their  conduct  accordingly.  An  old  fox 
which  has  escaped  several  snares,  and  knows  that 
he  is  watched,  takes  greater  precautions,  and 
proceeds  with  more  slyness,  when  he  approaches 
the  habitations  of  man,  with  a  view  of  stealing 
poultry.  A  bird,  whose  nest  has  been  destroyed 
in  a  frequented  place,  conceives  the  necessity  of 
placing  it,  in  future,  in  a  more  retired  situation  ; 
and  the  construction  of  the  second  nest  is  also 
more  solid  and  more  perfect  than  that  of  the  first. 
A  dog  resists  its  instinct  to  run  after  a  hare,  be- 
cause it  recollects  the  beating  it  has  previously 
received  on  Ihat  account.  The  horse  avoids  the 
stone  at  which  it  once  has  stumbled.  There  are 
even  facts  on  record  of  learned  pigs  and  learned 
canary  birds.     Similar  examples  are  within  the 


4  EDirCATiaN    OP  MAN. 

knowledge  of  every  one,  and  it  is  therefore  unne-» 
cessary  to  multiply  them.  Yet  this  power  of 
modifying  their  actions  is  not  unbounded  in 
animals,  but  limited  according  to  their  nature. 
Pigeons  and  hares,  for  instance,  can  never  be 
taught  to  hunt  like  falcons  and  dogs. 

Man  offers  similar  appearances.  The  various 
modifications  to  which  his  body  is  liable,  are 
known.  The  manifestations  of  the  mind  also 
vary  in  different  persons,  even  in  whole  nations. 
Yet,  as  far  as  history  informs  us,  mankind  has 
always  been  essentially  the  same.  The  only  dif- 
ference, observed  at  different  times,  has  been,  that 
the  manifestations  of  the  special  powers  have  been 
more  or  less  active,  modified,  and  variously  em- 
ployed. 

The  next  question  is.  Whether  man,  with  re- 
spect to  his  feelings  and  intellect,  has  improved 
or  degenerated  ?  By  some  authors,  mankind  is 
said  to  have  arrived  at  a  greater  state  of  perfec- 
tion than  it  originally  enjoyed  ;  while  others  la- 
ment its  progressive  degeneracy.  The  improve- 
ment or  degeneracy  of  the  human  race,  in  regard 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  external  world,  the  prac- 
tice of  the  fine  arts,  and  moral  conduct,  are  par- 
ticularly to  be  examined.  A  detailed  elucidation 
of  these  points  would  require  a  whole  volume  :  it 
is  my  intention  only  to  take  a  general  view  of 
them. 


GENERAL   VIEW.  5 

It  is  superfluous  to  mention,  that  the  moderns 
enjoy  a  great  superiority  over  the  ancients,  with 
respect  to  every  branch  of  natural  history  and 
natural  philosophy.  The  Baconian  and  true  meth- 
od of  studying  Nature,  founded  on  observation 
and  induction,  has  been  recently  discovered  and 
introduced.  It  has  forwarded  every  kind  of  posi- 
tive knowledge  in  an  astonishing  degree.  It  has, 
however,  been  unfortunately  neglected  in  the 
study  of  man,  and  hence  his  nature  is  but  little 
known.  It  is  true,  whatever  it  was  in  the  power 
of  man's  reasoning  faculties,  unaided  by  observa- 
tion, to  discover,  was  discovered  by  the  ancient 
philosophers.  But  the  knowledge  of  man  remain- 
ed extremely  vague  and  uncertain,  and  Phrenolo- 
gy alone  will  supply  this  defect,  and  reduce  An- 
thropology to  invariable  principles. 

In  the  fine  arts  of  imitation;  modern  artists  find 
it  difficult  to  surpass  the  ancient  masters,  yet  they 
seem  to  be  wrong  in  confining  themselves  to  mere 
imitation  of  ancient  productions  ;  nature  always 
remains  the  best  model,  inexhaustible  in  her  mod- 
ifications, whilst,  by  the  former  proceeding,  the 
arts  degenerate,  or  their  improvement,  at  least,  is 
impeded. 

The  arts  of  industry  have  undoubtedly  improv- 
ed, and  political  economy  may  be  considerd  as  a 
science  of  modern  days.  The  state  of  mankind  at 
large  is  evidently  better  than  in  ancient  times, 


0  EDUCATION   OF   MAN. 

and  during  the  ages  of  darkness ;  and  it  will  still 
improve,  in  proportion  as  ignorance  and  immorali- 
ty are  removed,  and  the  laws  of  the  Creator  at- 
tended to. 

The  improvement  or  degeneracy  of  man,  as  re- 
gards his  moral  and  religious  opinions,  presents  a 
particular  interest,  even  with  respect  to  his  world- 
ly happiness.  Both  these  sorts  of  notions  vary, 
according  to  the  different  states  of  civilization,  and 
they  are,  by  no  means,  stationary,  any  more  than 
the  functions  of  every  other  faculty. 

Savages  commonly  believe  in  polytheism,  and 
generally  consider  all  Superior  Beings  as  malevo- 
lent, and  worship  them  through  fear.  People  in 
a  more  cultivated  state  admit  Superior  Beings  of 
a  mixed  nature,  like  men.  The  gods  of  the 
Greeks,  for  instance,  were  supposed  to  be  endow- 
ed with  all  human  feelings  ;  they  required  food 
and  sleep.  Jupiter  himself  was  not  free  from  the 
human  frailties  :  he  was  jealous,  often  cruel  and 
implacable.  He  had  overturned  every  thing  in 
heaven,  and  reduced  the  other  gods  to  be  his 
slaves.  The  gods  of  the  Romans  were  not  more 
noble.  They  were  mercenary,  and  could  be 
bribed  by  fine  temples,  games,  and  more  accepta- 
ble sacrifices.  People  of  little  instruction  divided 
the  invisible  beings  into  benevolent  and  malevo- 
lent. Others  admitted  two  principles ;  one  benev- 
olent, the  other  malevolent;  and  they  acknow- 


GENERAL  VIEW.  7 

ledged  also  many  inferior  deities,  as  emanations 
from  the  primitive  ones.  Persons  of  more  culti- 
vated minds  believe  in  one  supreme  benevolent 
deity  ;  and  in  inferior  spirits,  some  benevolent, 
others  malevolent.  The  most  enlightened  ac- 
knowledged only  one  Supreme  Being,  boundless 
in  perfection,  and  the  maker  of  every  creature. 

The  mode  of  worship  deserves  equally  a  pecu- 
liar consideration  in  the  history  of  mankind.  It 
is  always  conformable  to  the  notions  entertained 
of  the  nature  of  the  Deity.  In  order  to  avert  the 
wrath  of  the  malevolent  powers,  and  to  please 
them,  men  have  made  themselves  as  miserable  as 
possible,  by  mortifications,  flagellations,  painful 
labors,  sacred  victims,  human  sacrifices,  and  sui- 
cides. To  gain  the  favor  of  manlike  gods,  sweet- 
smelling  herbs,  burning  incense,  oblations,  gifts, 
agreeable  impressions  on  the  senses,  ceremonies 
which  illustrate  a  prince  at  his  court,  and  various 
sorts  of  formalities,  have  been  employed. 

If  we  compare  the  absurdities  of  Paganism,  or 
even  the  imperfect  doctrines  of  Judaism,  with  the 
purity  and  sublime  principles  of  true  Christianity, 
we  shall  perceive  that  the  latter  are  greatly  supe- 
rior. The  Old  and  New  Testament  attribute  very 
different  qualities  to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  their 
moral  precepts  are  very  different.  The  old  dis- 
pensation may  be  viewed  as  accommodated  to  the 
Jews,  who  were  a  hardhearted,  stiffnecked,  stub- 
born race. 


8  EDUCATION    OP   MAN, 

The  God  of  Israel  was  jealous,  revengeful,  ter- 
rible, and  a  God  of  war.  He  was  fond  of  perfume, 
ornaments,  ceremonies,  burning  incense,  even 
of  bloody  sacrifices.  He  commanded  his  people 
to  destroy  those  who  forsook  him,  or  who  did  not 
obey  his  commandments  ;  even  those  who  kindled 
fire  on  the  sabbath  day.  Neither  brother,  sister, 
son,  daughter,  husband,  wife  nor  friend,  was  to 
be  spared,  if  he  served  another  god.  He  who 
knew  an  infidel,  was  forbidden  to  pity,  conceal  or 
save  him  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  his  duty  to  stone 
him.     (Exod.  xxxv.  Deuteronomy  xiii.) 

The  God  of  Christians,  on  the  contrary,  is  love, 
benevolence  and  charity.  He  is  the  father  of  the 
whole  of  mankind,  and  wishes  for  universal  hap- 
piness. He  freely  pardons,  provided  the  sinner 
repent.  He  gives  the  same  laws  to  all,  makes  no 
exception,  and  pays  no  attention  to  the  appear- 
ance of  persons  ;  he  judges,  punishes,  or  rewards 
every  one  after  his  actions.  He  is  a  Spirit  that 
cannot  be  confined  to  temples,  and  is  to  be  adored 
in  spirit  and  in  truth.  (John  iv.  Rom.  ii.  1  John 
iv.  Matt.  vi.  &c.) 

The  Jews  were  obliged  to  be  faithful  only  to 
those  of  their  own  race  ;  they  were  permitted  to 
take  usury  from  foreigrxers,  and  to  hate  them. 
David  praised  God  in  saying,  "  Do  I  not  hate 
those  who  hate  thee  ^  I  hate  them  with  perfect 
hatred."     (Ps.  cxxxviu)     They  were  ordered  to 


GENERAL    VIEW.  & 

form  a  separate  nation,  and  prohibited  from  inter- 
marrying with  other  people.  Their  food  was  pre- 
scribed ;  many  things  were  interdicted  and  de- 
clared impure.  Polygamy  was  lawful.  Solomon 
had  seven  hundred  wives  and  three  hundred  con- 
cubines. The  husband  was  allowed  to  put  away 
his  wife  ;  it  was  sufficient  to  write  her  a  bill  of  di- 
vorcement, &c.  &c. 

How  superior  and  more  noble  are  the  principles 
of  Christianity  :  they  prohibit  anger,  hatred  and 
revenge,  and  order  us  not  to  return  evil  for  evil ; 
they  command  forgiveness  of  every  offence  seven 
tim^s  in  a  day,  and  seventy  times  seven,  if  asked 
for ;  to  love  our  enemies  ;  to  bless  them  that 
curse  us,  and  to  do  good  to  them  that  hate  us. 
They  interdict  all  selfish  passions,  and  declare  our 
neighbor  every  one  who  does  the  will  of  God. 
Christ  asked  to  drink  of  a  woman  of  Samaria, 
whilst  the  Jews  had  no  dealings  with  that  nation. 
He  associated  with  Jews  and  Gentiles,  ate  with 
publicans  and  sinners,  and  declared  those  only 
who  do  the  will  of  his  heavenly  Father,  to  be  his 
mother,  sister  or  brother. 

No  food  is  an  abomination  to  Christians. 
Christ  said,  "  Not  that  which  enters  into  the 
mouth  defiles  a  man  ;"  and  St.  Paul  declares  to 
the  Romans,  "  I  know  and  am  persuaded  by  the 
Lord  Jesus,  that  there  is  nothing  unclean  in 
itself."     Christ    permitted  only  one  wife,   and 


10 


EDUCATION   OP  MAN. 


in  this  respect  re-established  the  law  as  it  was 
from  the  beginning  of  the  creation.     (Mark  x.  6.) 

Before  the  Christian  dispensation,  empires  were 
founded  by  the  sword,  and  by  the  most  cruel  and 
frightful  destruction  of  the  vanquished. 

Christ  declared,  that  he  came,  not  to  destroy 
men's  lives,  but  to  save  them  ;  that  he  who  exalts 
himself  shall  be  abased.  He  made  no  distinction 
among  persons,  and  considered  love  and  peace 
as  the  aim  of  all  commandments.  He  only  pro- 
posed the  doctrine  of  his  heavenly  Father  for  the 
acceptance  of  mankind,  and  did  not  enforce  it  by 
the  sword.  He  directed  his  disciples  only  to 
shake  off  the  dust  of  their  feet,  in  departing  out 
of  that  house  or  city  where  they  had  not  been 
courteously  received,  or  where  their  words  had 
not  been  attended  to. 

The  superiority  of  the  Christian  principles 
above  the  Jewish  law  is  evident.  St.  Paul  said 
to  the  Hebrews  (iii.),  that  "  Christ  is  more  wor- 
thy than  Moses;"  and  (vii.  20.)  "by  so  much 
was  Christ  made  a  surety  of  a  better  Testa- 
ment;"  and,  (viii.  7.)  "if  the  first  Covenant 
had  been  faultless,  then  should  noplace  have  been 
found  for  the  second."  True  Christianity  really 
improves  the  moral  and  religious  character  of  a 
Jew. 


GENERAL  YIEW,  II 

In  regard  to  morality,  it  is  indeed  impossible 
to  establish  better  principles  than  have  been 
pointed  out  in  the  New  Testament.  But  since 
these  rules,  unexampled  in  ancient  legislation, 
have  been  established,  the  followers  of  Christiani- 
ty have  often  fallen  back  to  many  of  the  contempt- 
ible doctrines  of  the  heathen.  Many  points  of  im- 
portance have  been  neglected,  and  trifles  adhered 
to.  Pretended  Christians,  for  instance,  have  dis- 
puted, whether  it  be  permitted  or  not,  to  eat  meat 
on  certain  days,  in  the  same  manner  as  Mahome- 
dans  dispute,  whether  coffee  be  or  be  not  prohib- 
ited in  the  Koran.  Notwithstanding  these  abuses, 
however,  it  is  certain,  that  the  precepts  of  moral 
and  religious  conduct  have  improved  by  degrees  ; 
and  that  many  selfish  and  absurd  opinions  will  be 
rectified,  as  soon  as  human  nature  shall  be  better 
understood.  True  Christianity  will  gain,  by 
every  step  which  is  made  in  the  knowledge  of 
man. 

Let  us  now  see  whether  Education  i<  advaiicfed 
as  much  as  may  be  desirable.  Unfortunately  we 
find,  that  notwithstanding  the  sublime  principles 
of  Christian  morality,  and  the  numerous  master 
pieces  of  arts  and  sciences,  it  is  a  lamentable  truth, 
that  hitherto  education  has  succeeded  less  than  the 
friends  of  humanity  wish  for.  Indeed,  if  we  ex- 
amine its  influence  on  the  improvement  of  man- 
kind, a  thousand  years  is  like  a  day  that  is  past. 
Who  has  not  seen  children  of  the  most  pious  and 


1^  EDUCATION   OP   MAN. 

exemplary  parents  indulge  in  scepticism,  and 
plunge  themselves  into  profanity  and  vice  ?  And 
who  has  not  observed  that  licentiousness  often  pre- 
vails in  the  most  enlightened  and  refined  classes 
of  society  ?  Who  has  not  observed  very  limited 
talents  appear  in  the  offspring  of  men  of  the 
greatest  genius  ?  Now  the  inferences  to  be  drawn 
from  such  facts  are,  that  either  the  education  has 
not  been  adapted  to  the  natural  dispositions  of 
those  individuals,  or  that  every  one  is  not  capable 
of  receiving  the  full  effect  of  a  good  education  ; 
and  as  man,  in  general,  hitherto  has  little  improv- 
ed by  education,  we  must  conclude  that  either  he 
is  less  perfectible  than  we  may  wish  for,  or  that  the 
true  means  of  improvement  have  not  been  employ- 
ed. The  latter  cause  seems  to  me  the  most  prob- 
able, and  it  may  be  principally  accounted  for  by 
our  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  man.  Plants  and 
animals  succeed  only,  if  treated  according  to  their 
natural  qualities,  and  the  education  of  man  will 
not  and  cannot  succeed,  without  adapting  it  to  his 
nature. 

Some  philosophers  have  endeavored  to  degrade 
man  to  a  level  with  the  brute  ;  while  others  have 
fancied  that  he  has  nothing  whatever  in  common 
with  the  animal  kingdom.  By  some  the  faculties 
of  man  are  considered  as  the  result  of  external  im- 
pressions, and  accidental  circumstances  ;  while 
others  believe  that  the  existence  of  each  person, 
and  all  the  phenomena  of  that  existence,  are  the 
effects  of  predestination. 


GENERAL    VIEW.  l3 

1  shall  mention  a  few  particulars  concerning  the 
great  error,  according  to  which  the  champions  of 
education  consider  new-born  children  as  blank 
paper,  on  which  they  can  mark  every  impression. 
But,  under  such  a  supposition,  why  are  children 
of  the  same  family  so  different  ?  Why  can  teachers 
not  communicate  their  own  talents  to  every  pupil  ? 
Why  cannot  every  one,  who  understands  the  mas- 
terpieces of  genius,  produce  similar  effects  ?  Why 
is  not  every  poet  a  Homer, — every  musician  a 
Handel,  a  Mozart,  a  Haydn, — every  historian  a 
Tacitus, — every  speaker  a  Demosthenes, — every 
painter  a  Raphael  ?  The  rules  which  lead  to 
perfection  being  pointed  out,  it  would  be  easy  for 
every  one  to  put  them  into  practice,  if  no  innate 
powers  were  necessary.  Experience,  then,  forces 
us  to  decide  entirely  against  such  speculative  as- 
sertions ;  those,  who  have  been  engaged  in  con- 
ducting education,  are  convinced  that  they  are  in- 
capable of  producing  those  talents  and  feelings  in 
children  which  they  could  wish  ;  and  those,  who 
assert  the  contrary,  maintain  only  dreams,  and  in- 
stead of  observing  nature,  indulge  in  their  fancy. 

Many  defenders  of  education  wish  to  persuade 
us,  that  the  first  impressions  in  early  age  deter- 
mine the  direction  of  the  mind.  I  do  not  deny 
their  influence,  but  it  is  less  than  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  be.  Children,  in  their  early  years, 
are  almost  exclusively  intrusted  to  the  care  of  fe- 
males, yet  boys  and  girls  show  from  the  earliest 


14  EDUCATION    OF   MAN. 

infancy  their  distinctive  characters  ;  and  this  dif- 
ference  between  the  sexes  continues  through  Hfe. 
A  marked  variety  of  tempers  and  capacities  may 
be  observed  in  children,  as  soon  as  they  are  sus- 
ceptible of  any  impression.  Children,  like  adult 
persons,  are  differently  affected  by  the  same  ex- 
ternal circumstances.  Impressions,  also,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  are  more  or  less  permanent.  How 
often,  in  the  maturity  of  age,  when  the  activity  of 
the  mind  is  the  greatest,  does  it  happen,  that  we 
are  at  one  time  perfectly  acquainted  with  a  sub- 
ject, but  afterwards  forget  it,  as  if  we  had  never 
known  it  ?  How,  then,  is  it  possible  to  believe, 
that  individual  impressions,  received  at  a  period 
when  the  mind  is  almost  inactive,  determine  the 
character  or  the  mental  capacities  of  a  child  for 
his  whole  life  ?  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well 
known,  that  many  individuals  turn  out  very  dif- 
ferent from  what  they  appeared  at  an  earlier  period 
of  life.  It  must  therefore  be  allowed,  that  the 
above  mentioned  opinion  is  destitute  of  all  support 
from  experience. 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  maintain,  that  education 
must  fail,  as  long  as  we  continue  to  think  that 
children  are  born  alike,  and  may  receive,  with 
equal  advantage,  every  kind  of  education.  If  J. 
J.  Rousseau  had  taken  care  of  his  children,  instead 
of  sending  them  to  the  public  hospital,  he  would 
have  detected  his  erroneous  conceptions  :  he  would 
have  observed,  that  Nature  implants  certain  kinds 


GENERAL   VIEW.  15 

of  feeling  ;  that  education  only  weakens,  or  invig- 
orates and  refines  them  ;  that  children  react  on  ex- 
ternal circamstances,  according  to  their  natural 
dispositions  ;  and  that  it  is  necessary  to  adapt  ed- 
ucation to  the  nature  of  individuals.  Hence,  the 
first  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  trace  back  the  facul- 
ties of  children  to  their  origin.  Such  a  know- 
ledge will  contribute  to  the  advancement  of  arts 
and  sciences,  and  to  the  improvement  of  moral 
■conduct,  by  suggesting  suitable  means  for  direct- 
ing the  energies  of  children  to  the  objects  which 
they  are  most  fitted  by  nature  to  attain.  "  There 
are  few  subjects,"  says  Dugald  Stewart,  "  more 
hackneyed  than  that  of  education,  and  yet  there  is 
none  upon  which  the  opinions  of  the  world  are 
still  more  divided.  Nor  is  this  surprising  ;  for 
most  of  those  who  have  speculated  concerning  it, 
have  confined  their  attention  chiefly  to  incidental 
questions  about  the  comparative  advantage  of  pub- 
lic OP  private  instruction,  the  utility  of  peculiar 
language  or  sciences,  without  attempting  a  pre- 
vious examination  of  those  faculties  and  principles 
of  the  mind,  which  it  is  the  great  object  of  educa- 
tion to  improve." — (Elements  of  the  Philosophy 
of  the  Human  Mind,  p.  62.) 

Another  great  error  in  education,  also  founded 
on  our  ignorance  of  the  human  nature,  is,  that 
every  teacher  takes  himself  as  a  model  for  his 
pupils.  What  he  likes  and  learns  with  facility, 
he  supposes  ought  to  be  equally  liked  and  learned 


16  EDUCATION    OF    MAW. 

by  every  other  person  ;  while  in  every  child,  the 
feeling-s  and  intellectual  faculties,  though  essen- 
tially the  same,  are  modified  in  quantity  and  qual- 
ity. Hitherto,  on  account  of  none  of  the  systems 
of  education  being  founded  on  a  correct  analysis 
of  the  faculties  of  man,  education  has  been  con- 
ducted altogether  in  a  general  way  ;  and  hence 
almost  every  individual  who  thinks  for  himself 
when  arrived  at  the  age  of  maturity,  has  found  it 
necessary  to  begin  a  new  course  of  education, 
according  to  his  individual  character  and  talents. 

Still  another  point,  hitherto  not  sufficiently  un- 
derstood in  education,  concerns  the  organic  con- 
ditions on  which  the  manifestations  of  the  mind 
depend.  This  is  the  object  of  a  new  doctrine,  and 
is  detailed  in  my  work  on  Phrenology,  Vol.  L 

Education,  though  it  does  not  create  any  power 
whatever,  may  produce  great  effect ;  but  for  that 
purpose  its  whole  system  must  be  changed,  and 
this  will  be  done  in  proportion  as  the  nature  of 
man  becomes  known,  and  as  it  shall  be  acknow- 
ledged that  man  must  be  perfected  like  other 
created  beings.  He  is  the  disciple  of  nature,  and 
must  submit  to  the  determined  sway  which  pre- 
vails in  her  government.  He  errs  the  moment  he 
ceases  to  observe,  and  begins  to  excogitate.  The 
construction  of  a  system  of  education  cannot  be  a 
creative  but  an  imitative  process,  which  must  bo 
founded  only  on  the  lessons  of  experience.   HerCjas 


GENERAL   VIEW.  17 

in  the  cultivation  of  every  other  science,  it  is  not 
by  the  exercise  of  a  sublime  and  speculative  in- 
genuity, that  man  arrives  at  truth,  but  it  is  by  let- 
ting himself  down  to  simple  observation, — by  re- 
jecting equally  the  authority  of  antiquity,  and  of 
eminent  contemporaries,  when  in  opposition  to 
nature  ; — by  sacrificing  every  consideration  that 
opposes  the  evidence  of  observation,  and  its  legit- 
imate and  well  established  conclusions  ; — by  being 
able  to  renounce  all  the  favorite  opinions  of  in- 
fancy, the  moment  that  truth  demands  the  sacrifice  ; 
— in  short,  by  following  only  the  lights  of  obser- 
vation and  induction.  "  Does  not  our  happiness 
depend,"  says  a  contemporary  writer,  "  on  the 
knowledge  of  the  various  relations  which  man 
bears  to  his  fellow  man  and  to  his  God,  and  the 
practice  of  the  duties  which  they  impose  ;  and 
how  are  we  to  discover  these  relations,  except  by 
the  assistance  of  reason,  operating  on  experience  ? 
Can  false  views  of  human  nature,  and  its  attributes, 
increase  the  happiness  of  the  human  race  individ- 
ually ;  or  can  political  society,  framed  on  such 
erroneous  principles,  attain  the  end  for  which 
alone  society  was  framed  ?  '  Deception  and  men- 
dacy  are  always  regarded  in  the  common  and 
every  day  intercourse  of  life  as  base  and  odious, — 
Is  it  then  only  upon  subjects  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  man,  that  he  may  be  deceived  without 
danger  or  detestation  ?' "  (Retrospective  Review. 
No.  I.  p.  71.)  I  concur  entirely  in  these  centi- 
ments. 

3* 


16  EDUCfitlOS^   01*  MArj". 

My  ideas  on  the  nature  of  man,  on  his  funda* 
mental  powers  ;  on  their  innatendss  ;  on  the  con* 
ditions  of  their  manifestations  in  this  life  ;  on  the 
moral  liberty,  and  several  other  points,  are  ex- 
posed, with  details,  in  works  entitled  Physiologi- 
cal and  Philosophical  Principles  of  Phrenology. 
I  suppose  these  points  to  be  known  to  those  who 
take  up  this  volume,  composed  merely  with  phre- 
nological views,  and  founded  on  mere  phrenologi- 
cal principles. 

In  treating  of  Education  and  Legislation,  it 
seems  important  to  examine.  Whether  there  is 
only  one  species  of  the  human  race,  or  whether 
there  are  several  ?  The  great  variety  of  bodily 
and  mental  appearances  ; — of  features,  complexion, 
size,  and  configuration  ; — of  feelings  and  intellect- 
ual powers, — must  strike  the  most  superficial 
observer.  The  causes  of  these  differences  have 
been  examined,  and  various  hypotheses  have  been 
invented  to  account  for  them.  Some  authors 
have  had  recourse  to  different  original  species  ; 
others  have  accounted  for  these  modifications,  by 
the  common  laws  of  nature.  It  is  indeed  natural 
to  ask,  Whether  a  Negro  and  a  White  Man,  a 
Dwarf  and  a  Giant,  a  Hottentot  and  Lord  Bacon, 
are  of  the  same  species  ?  Whether  the  Cannibal, 
whose  earthly  and  expected  heavenly  pleasures  are 
gratifications  of  the  low  animal  passions,  and  the 
true  Christian,  full  of  kindness   and  benignity  ; 


GENERAL   VIEW.  19 

whether  he  whose  ingenuity  is  exercised  merely 
in  destruction  and  devastation,  and  he  v/ho  be- 
holds all  creatures  as  objects  of  Divine  providence 
and  beneficence,  were  originally  formed  after  the 
same  image  ? 

If  there  be  several  species  of  Man,  there  can  be 
no  universal  principles  of  human  conduct ; — hu- 
man nature  cannot  be  included  in  any  one  system  ; 
and  the  rules  which  are  suitable  for  one  nation 
will  not  be  fit  for  another.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
there  be  only  one  species ; — ganeral  principles  of 
education,  general  rules  of  conduct,  and  national 
laws,  may  be  established.  Moreover,  if  there  were 
several  species,  and  one  superior  to  the  others,  the 
White  to  the  Negro,  for  example,  slavery  might 
be  contended  for  as  an  institution  of  Nature  ;  but 
if  the  species  be  only  one,  neither  the  primitive 
moral  character,  nor  Christianity,  can  excuse  this 
most  selfish  of  all  barbarities. 

I  will  not  consider  the  arguments  of  those  who, 
from  inferior  motives,  without  any  respect  for  hu- 
man dignity,  and  without  any  religious  or  moral 
principles,  or  reproaches  of  conscience,  force 
other  people  to  become  the  mere  instruments  of 
their  selfish  gratification.  I  shall  examine  only 
the  reasons  which  natural  history  offers,  in  support 
of  the  one  or  other  opinion  :  that  the  human  race 
consists  of  one  species,  or  of  several.  These  rea- 
sons may  be  drawn  from  the  external  qualities  of 


20  '  EDUCATION   OP   MAN. 

the  body,  such  as  size,  configuration  and  complex- 
ion ;  its  internal  structure  ;  the  laws  of  propaga- 
tion ;  and  the  manifestations  of  the  mind. 

In  the  elucidation  of  this  important  object,  it  is 
not  sufficient  to  examine  the  external  qualities 
alone.  Such  a  proceeding  is  like  that  of  Linnaeus, 
who  classed  the  animals  according  to  their  external 
appearances,  and  not  according  to  their  nature  ; 
or  like  that  of  a  librarian,  who  should  class  books 
according  to  their  shape,  size,  or  binding,  without 
regard  to  their  contents. 

Man  is  found  in  all  climates ;  and  hence  some 
philosophers  have  inferred  that  there  are  several 
species  of  man.  These  philosophers  reasoned  by 
analogy,  stating,  that  each  climate  has  its  own 
species  of  men,  in  the  same  way  as  plants  and 
animals  are  adapted  to  hot,  temperate,  and  frigid 
regions.  Plants  which  grow  in  the  torrid  zone, 
perish  in  a  cold  climate,  and  those  which  flourish 
upon  mountains,  decay  on  being  removed  to  a 
plain.  The  rein-deer,  say  they,  is  confined  to  the 
frozen  region,  and  the  white  bear  cannot  live  in  a 
southern  climate  ;  while  the  elephant,  rhinoceros, 
and  many  other  animals,  do  not  prosper  in  the 
frigid  zone.  Hence  Nature  has  destined  and 
fitted  different  beings  for  different  climates,  and 
she  has  guarded  them  against  the  natural  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  seasons.  To  this  end,  in  cold  coun- 
tries, animals  are  protected  with  more  fat,  and 


GENERAL    VIEW.  21 

thicker  hair.  The  same  rule  explains  why  plants 
and  animals  lose  their  qualities,  when  removed 
from  their  native  climate  ;  and  why,  in  several 
countries,  the  stock  requires  to  be  continually  re- 
newed. In  northern  countries,  for  instance,  flax 
degenerates,  and  a  quantity  of  seed  is  annually 
imported  from  southern  regions.  In  the  same 
way,  to  preserve,  in  some  degree  of  perfection, 
the  breed  of  Arabian  and  Barbary  horses,  fre- 
quent supplies  from  their  original  climates  are 
requisite. 

Lord  Kames,  (Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man, 
vol.  I.)  one  of  the  principal  champions  of  the 
opinion  that  there  are  different  species  of  man,  in- 
sists much  on  observations  of  this  kind,  and  thinks 
them  conclusive.  He  supports  his  assertions,  by 
observing,  that  men,  in  changing  climate,  usually 
fall  sick,  and  often  run  the  risk  of  losing  their 
lives.  This  argument,  however,  is  not  decisive. 
The  plants  and  animals  adapted  to  different  cli- 
mates, are  evidently  of  different  species.  This  is 
not  the  case  with  the  varieties  of  men.  Moreover, 
as  plants  and  animals  can  by  no  means  alter,  or 
regulate  the  effect  of  external  influences  upon 
themselves,  it  is  conceivable  that  peculiar  species, 
fitted  for  every  climate,  should  be  created.  Man, 
on  the  contrary,  is  able  to  remove  obstacles,  to 
overcome  difficulties,  and  to  modify,  in  a  high  de- 
gree, the  effect  of  external  circumstances  upon  his 
nature.    On  the  other  hand,  the  argument  of  anal- 


2^  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ogy  is  not  even  general ;  for  several  animals,  such 
as  pigs,  dogs,  and  others,  follow  man,  and,  shelter- 
ed hy  him,  live  in  all  climates. 

It  is  certain  that  great  changes  of  climate  pro- 
duce diseases.  We  must  observe,  however,  that 
it  is  not  a  great  difference  of  climate  alone  that 
produces  this  effect,  but  that  all  sudden  changes 
of  season,  weather,  situation,  and  mode  of  living, 
also  expose  us  to  the  loss  of  health.  In  America, 
says  the  Reverend  Dr.  Smith,  ("  On  the  Varieties 
of  Men,"  p.  119.)  "we  are  liable  to  disorders  by 
removing  incautiously  from  a  northern  to  a  south- 
ern State  ;  but  it  would  be  absurd  to  conclude, 
that  the  top  of  every  hill,  and  the  bank  of  every 
river,  is  therefore  inhabited  by  a  different  species, 
because  in  the  one  we  enjoy  less  health  than  in 
the  other.  The  constitution  becomes  attempered 
in  a  degree  even  to  an  unhealthy  region,  and  then 
it  feels  augmented  symptoms  of  disorder,  on  re- 
turning to  the  most  salubrious  air  and  water  ;  but 
does  this  prove  that  Nature  never  intended  such 
men  to  drink  clear  water,  or  to  breathe  in  a  pure 
atmosphere?"  It  may  be  added,  that  there  are 
diseases  of  professions,  as  well  as  of  climates. 
Shall  we  maintain,  therefore,  that  there  is  a  spe- 
cies of  man  for  every  profession  ?  Captain  Cook, 
Captain  Krusenstern,  and  other  navigators,  have 
proved,  that,  with  sufficient  care,  man  can  bear 
great  changes  of  air,  temperature,  season,  and 
weather.   They  have  preserved  the  health  of  their 


GENERAL    VIEW.  23 

crews  in  long*  voyages,  and  in  the  most  dissimilar 
climates.  The  human  constitution  is  known,  from 
positive  observation,  to  become  in  time  assimilated 
to  every  climate  ;  and  the  offspring  of  foreigners, 
at  length  endure,  like  the  aborigines,  the  external 
influence  without  injury.  Thus,  the  argument 
that  sudden  changes  of  climate  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  diseases,  or  even  death,  does  not  prove 
that  there  are  several  species  of  man. 

The  Reverend  Dr.  Smith  has  clearly  shown, 
from  another  argument,  quoted  from  Lord  Kames, 
that  the  latter  was  too  credulous ;  that  he  was  de- 
ceived by  erroneous  reports  of  superficial  observ- 
ers ;  and  that  he  did  not  sufficiently  understand 
the  pliancy  of  the  human  constitution,  which  ena- 
bles it  to  adapt  itself  to  every  climate,  and  to  all 
external  circumstances.  The  last  remark  that 
Lord  Kames  makes,  is  a  striking  example  against 
his  own  assertion.  He  says,  that  "  the  Portuguese 
colony  on  the  coast  of  Congo,  has  in  course  of 
time  degenerated  so  much,  that  they  scarcely  re- 
tain the  appearance  of  men."  Another  assertion 
of  his,  is  a  complete  specimen  of  his  credulity. 
He  is  of  opinion  that  the  Giagas.  a  nation  in  Afri- 
ca, could  not  have  descended  from  the  same  origi- 
nal with  the  rest  of  mankind,  because,  unlike  to 
others,  they  are  void  of  natural  affection ;  kill  all 
their  own  children  as  soon  as  they  are  born,  and 
supply  their  places  with  youths  stolen  from  neigh- 
boring tribes.     Common  sense,  however,  would 


24  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

answer,  that  if  such  a  species  were  created,  it 
could  not  continue  longer  than  the  primitive  stock 
endured.  The  stolen  youth  would  resemble  their 
parents,  not  those  who  adopted  them,  and  would 
soon  be  the  sole  constituents  of  the  nation.  Yet 
Lord  Kames  thought  that  the  Giagas  formed  a  pe- 
culiar species,  who  continued  from  generation  to 
generation  to  kill  their  children  ! 

All  organized  beings  are  modified  by  external 
influences,  though  their  primitive  nature  is  never 
changed.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  to  believe 
that  every  kind  of  apple,  pear,  or  other  fruit-tree 
which  we  see  in  our  gardens,  has  been  the  subject 
of  a  distinct  creation,  these  varieties  being  pro- 
duced by  degrees.  The  specific  character,  how- 
ever, is  constantly  the  same ;  and  one  tree  can 
never  be  changed  into  another, — an  apple-tree,  for 
instance,  into  a  pear-tree. 

The  same  law  of  modification  prevails  among 
animals.  Their  size,  color,  and  other  qualities, 
are  very  different  in  different  climates.  There  are 
varieties  of  horses,  eight  times  smaller  than  other 
races.  Some  goats  have  no  horns  ;  others  have 
several.  The  pigs,  also,  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
Hungary,  are  very  different,  but  it  would  be  irra- 
tional to  admit  as  many  primitive  species  of  these 
animals  as  there  are  varieties.  Their  specific 
character  is  always  the  same,  and  a  pig  can  never 
be  changed  into  a  sheep. 


GENERAL    VIEW.  25 

As  the  body  of  man  is  subjected  to  the  general 
laws  of  organization,  why  should  it  also  not  un- 
dergo considerable  changes,  and  present  great  dif- 
ferences of  appearance  ?  This  matter,  on  account 
of  its  importance,  deserves  to  be  examined  more 
at  large. 

One  of  the  most  striking  differences  perceptible 
in  the  human  race,  as  well  as  in  animals,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  skin  and  hair,  which  are  in  the  most 
intimate  relation  with  each  other,  and  indeed  re- 
ceive their  nourishment  from  the  same  blood-ves- 
sels. They  vary  in  thickness  and  color,  and  evi- 
dently depend  on  climate.  The  ermine  and  weasel 
change  the  color  of  their  hair  in  summer  and  win- 
ter. The  fur  of  wild  animals  grows  thicker  in 
cold  weather  ;  while  under  the  heat  of  the  torrid 
zone,  the  hair  is  coarse. 

Among  horses,  oxen,  rabbits,  and  other  animals, 
some  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  brown, 
black,  or  white ;  and  why  should  it  be  thought 
absurd,  that  there  should  be  also  variously  colored 
men  ?  The  only  difference  in  this  respect  betwixt 
man  and  animals,  seems  to  be,  that  man  resists 
longer  the  influence  of  external  circumstances,  and 
that  his  skin  requires  a  greater  difference  of  cli- 
mate to  change  its  color.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  heat  and  extreme  cold  thicken  the  skin  of 
man  and  darken  his  color.  We  might  naturally 
expect,  what  is  indeed  the  case,  that  changes  of 


m 


EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 


the  skin  produced  by  climate,  should  take  effect 
in  a  longer  or  a  shorter  time,  according  to  the 
different  degrees  of  civilization  ;  for  example,  sav- 
ages being  exposed  to  the  influence  of  climate,  suf- 
fer its  full  force  ;  while  civilized  nations  obviate, 
or  even  greatly  prevent  its  influence. 

Among  the  physical  qualities  of  man,  com- 
plexion is  the  most  easily  changed.  The  Portu- 
guese in  Africa  are  become  black,  but  they  have 
preserved  their  original  configuration.  The  Jews 
in  northern  countries  are  fair  ;  they  become  brown 
and  tawney  towards  the  south,  but  their  configu- 
ration does  not  undergo  proportionate  changes. 

It  seems  difficult  to  say  whether  the  original 
color  of  man  was  white  or  black ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  white  people  grow  black  sooner  than  negroes 
become  white. 

On  the  other  hand,  difference  of  size  and  form 
does  not  prove  the  existence  of  several  species  of 
man,  more  than  that  of  several  animals  which  va- 
ry greatly  in  this  respect.  The  swine  carried 
from  Europe  to  Cuba  acquires  double  its  original 
magnitude.  It  is  the  same  with  the  oxen  in  Para- 
guay. Climate,  diet,  and  the  manner  of  living, 
may  produce  such  differences.  Young  animals  of 
the  same  litter,  treated  with  care,  or  neglected, 
well  fed  or  reduced  to  starvation,  will  be  quite 
different  in  shape  and  size.     Children,  when  neg 


GENERAL   VIEW.  27 

lected,  are  emaciated,  sallow,  and  their  features 
coarse  and  meagre.  The  poor,  exposed  to  exces- 
sive hardships,  are  apt  to  become  deformed,  and 
diminutive  in  their  persons  ;  whilst  luxury  and 
excess  also  tend  to  debilitate  and  disfigure  the  hu- 
man constitution. 

Determinate  feeUngs,  too,  when  permanent  and 
habitual,  change  the  countenance  and  external 
appearance. 

The  most  effectual  means  of  producing  differ- 
ences, and  of  preserving  those  which  exist,  is  pro- 
pagation ;  and  on  this  subject  I  shall  hereafter  en- 
ter more  into  detail. 

Thus,  the  external  differences  of  mankind  may- 
be explained  by  known  natural  causes,  and  are  no 
proofs  that  there  are  several  original  species.  A 
sound  philosophy  never  assigns,  without  necessity, 
diflerent  causes  for  similar  effects.  Small  influ- 
ences, acting  constantly,  will  necessarily  produce, 
in  time,  conspicuous  changes  in  mankind  ;  just  as 
a  succession  of  drops  of  water,  falling  on  the  hard- 
est rock,  makes  a  cavity.  The  first  alteration  in 
the  external  appearance  of  man  is  observed  in  the 
countenance,  the  next  in  the  complexion,  and  the 
last  in  the  size  and  configuration. 

It  may  be  added,  that  man  may  live  every 
where,  the  flexibility  of  his  body  supporting  dif 


28  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ferent  impressions; — moreover,  no  obstacle,  nei- 
ther river  nor  sea,  prevents  him  from  continuing 
his  excursions ; — he  transports  with  him  animals 
and  vegetables,  and  prepares  by  art  what  he  can- 
not use  in  the  natural  state ;  and  he  knows  how 
to  shelter  himself  and  other  useful  beings  against 
noxious  influences  from  without. 

The  internal  structure  of  the  body  of  man,  also 
indicates  that  there  is  only  one  species.  To  prove 
that  there  are  several,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
show  that  the  number  of  the  essential  parts  is  not 
the  same  in  all ;  that  Europeans,  for  instance, 
possess  certain  parts  which  Negroes  have  not. 
Whoever  could  demonstrate,  that  one  part  of  the 
brain  in  Europeans  is  wanting  in  Negroes,  would 
prove  that  there  is  a  natural  difference  between 
them  ;  I  hope,  during  my  stay  in  the  United  States, 
to  be  able  to  examine  the  brains  of  Negroes,  and  to 
ascertain  that  the  same  essential  parts  exist  in 
them,  subject,  merely,  to  modifications,  as  it  is 
t4e  case  in  different  individuals  of  the  white  race. 

Another  argument  to  prove  that  there  is  only 
one  species  of  Man,  may  be  founded  on  the  mani- 
festations of  the  mind.  Every  where,  and  at  all 
times,  the  same  primitive  faculties,  however  modi- 
fied the  actions  flowing  from  them  may  be,  are  to 
be  observed.  Negroes,  in  general,  are  inferior  to 
Europeans ;  yet  some  of  the  former  excel  in  mu- 
sic, mathematics,  and  philosophy.     Blumenbach 


GENERAL    VIEW.  29 

(Goetting.  Magazine,  t.  iv.  p.  421,)  and  Bishop 
Gregory  have  collected  the  names  of  Negroes  fa- 
mous for  their  talents.  Herder  and  Raynal,  in 
various  passages  of  their  w^orks,  quote  instances  of 
extraordinary  virtue  and  morality,  observed  among 
savages  and  barbarous  nations. 

It  has  been  reported,  that  there  are  nations  with- 
out religious  feelings  ;  but  more  exact  inves- 
tigation has  shown,  that  religious  ceremonies 
existed,  but  had  been  mistaken  for  mere  social 
amusements,  such  as  dancing,  singing,  and  fight- 
ing. It  has  frequently  happened,  that  descrip- 
tions of  savage  nations  have  been  given  by  trav- 
ellers, who  neither  knew  their  language,  nor 
the  signification  of  their  manners  and  customs. 
Almost  all  reports  of  this  kind  are  founded  on  sin- 
gle observations.  How  erroneous,  therefore,  must 
they  be,  and  how  little  to  be  relied  on,  f  articularly 
when  they  describe  the  customs  of  nations  hostile 
to  strangers.  It  is  known,  that  savages  frequently 
steal  from  foreigners,  while  they  continue  faithful 
to  each  other,  like  several  criminals  in  Europe, 
who  show  great  attachment  and  justice  towards 
each  other,  and  rather  suffer  the  greatest  torments 
than  betray  their  companions  and  friends,  but  who 
do  not  spare  either  the  goods  or  the  lives  of  other 
individuals.  If  a  traveller,  accustomed  to  the 
most  brilliant  ceremonies  of  religion,  were  to  meet 
with  a  sect  of  the  followers  of  Confucius,  who 
have  neither  temple  nor  priests,  nor  any  form  of 


3d  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

external  worship  ;  who  adore  the  Supreme  Being 
in  mere  inward  contemplation,  and  in  the  practice 
of  moral  virtue,  and  he  had  no  direct  means  of 
communication  with  them,  might  he  not  easily  be 
led  to  think,  that  they  professed  no  religion  what- 
ever ?  Hence,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  be- 
twixt the  faculties  themselves  and  their  applica- 
tion. Attachment,  for  instance,  may  act  with  re- 
spect to  our  native  country, — to  our  friends, — to 
animals, — or  to  other  objects, — yet  the  primitive 
impulse  is  the  same  in  all  these  instances,  although 
the  external  applications  are  very  different.  Cour- 
age may  be  shown  in  self-defence,  or  in  defending 
others.  He  who  is  fond  of  approbation,  may  adorn 
himself  with  ear-rings,  with  girdles,  with  chains, 
or  embroidery.  Religious  people,  in  like  manner, 
may  pay  divine  honors  to  a  bull,  to  a  serpent,  to 
the  sun,  to  saints,  or  to  the  God  of  Christians  ; — 
they  n\ay  howl  to  the  glory  of  invisible  beings,  or 
worship  one  Deity,  by  singing  psalms,  or  by  the 
practice  of  moral  virtue,  and  all  of  these  acts  may 
flow  from  the  same  primitive  tendency  to  venera- 
tion. 

Finally,  propagation  is  considered  as  a  means  of 
determining  whether  animals  belong  to  the  same 
or  to  different  species,  according  as  they  can  or 
cannot  engender  together,  or  as  their  issue  can  or 
cannot  procreate.  Tried  by  this  test,  also,  we 
must  conclude  that  mankind  form  but  one  spe- 
cies. 


GENERAL    VIEW.  31 

However,  it  ought  to  be  observed,  that  natural 
history  can  show  only  the  possibility  of  mankind 
being  derived  from  one  original  species,  which, 
by  degrees,  has  undergone  various  changes  ;  but 
it  cannot  prove  the  reality  of  this  fact,  any  more 
than  it  can  ascertain  whether  the  original  color  of 
man  was  white  or  black,  or  whether  one  or  two 
pairs  of  each  species  of  animals  were  created  at 
the  beginning. 

Thus,  in  the  following  considerations,  I  shall 
take  it  for  granted,  that  mankind  is  only  one  spe- 
cies, comprehending  various  races,  endowed  with 
the  same  primitive  powers  of  body  and  mind. 
Yet,  as  the  sense  of  smell,  attachment,  or  courage, 
&c.,  is  stronger  in  one  dog,  or  in  one  race  of  dogs, 
than  in  another ;  so  such  or  such  a  faculty  may  be 
more  active  in  one  man,  or  in  one  tribe,  than  in 
another,  though  both  races  are  essentially  of  the 
same  species. 

There  remains  an  important  introductory  point 
to  be  considered,  viz.,  whether  education,  princi- 
pally instruction,  is  useful ;  or,  in  other  words, 
whether  it  is  better  to  leave  the  common  people 
in  ignorance,  or  to  instruct  all  classes  of  society  ? 

To  answer  this  query  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
let  us  remember  that  the  human  mind  embraces 
feelings  and  intellectual  faculties  ;  that  intellect 
does  not  produce  feelings,  but  that  the  latter  are 


)^  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

the  main  causes  of  our  actions.  Hence  it  is  a  great 
mistake  to  confine  education  to  intellectual  in- 
struction. Education,  then,  if  well  conducted,  em- 
braces both  feeUngs  and  intellect, 'and  improves 
both  the  body  and  mind.  A  few  observations, 
however,  will  prove  that  intellectual  education  is 
preferable  to  ignorance. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  actions  of  all 
nations,  through  the  different  states  of  civilization. 
The  history  of  each  at  the  beginning  is  stigmatized 
with  assassination,  parricides,  incest,  and  violation 
of  the  most  sacred  oaths.  The  selfish  passions, 
then,  appear  to  have  enjoyed  an  overwhelming 
power  ;  and  all  enjoyments  sprung  from  the  grati- 
fication of  the  lower  propensities.  In  periods  of 
ignorance,  too,  all  nations  confined  moral  virtue 
to  themselves,  and  supposed  the  rest  of  nature 
destined  to  be  their  prey.  Legislation,  corres- 
ponding with  the  national  character  at  the  begin- 
ning, is  sanguinary ;  and  capital  punishment  is 
common.  Nay,  it  falls  not  on  the  criminals  alone, 
but  also  on  their  relations,  and  on  whole  districts. 
Tlieir  religion  is  founded  on  terror,  their  gods 
are  endowed  witli  all  the  lower  feelings  and  affec- 
tions such  as  selfishness,  jealousy,  wrath,  and  fond- 
liess  for  dreadful  actions  and  expiatory  sacrifices. 
If  they  hope  for  immortality,  the  scenes  which 
they  expect  are  conformable  to  their  actual  feel- 
ings ;  triumph  over  enemies,  gratification  of  lower 
passions,  and  sensual  pleasures.     The  whole  ten- 


GENERAL    VIEW.  33 

dency  of  the  mind  is  atrocity  ;  and  their  actions 
might  almost  be  denominated  a  series  of  horrid 
crimes.  I  doubt  whether  those,  who  consider  the 
savage  state  so  worthy  of  commendation,  would 
be  disposed  to  give  up  the  comforts  of  civilization, 
and  be  satisfied  with  the  food,  clothing,  habita- 
tions and  accommodations  of  Barbarians  ;  whether 
they  would  prefer  roots,  acorns,  nuts,  insects  and 
other  animals,  at  the  sight  of  which  we  shudder, 
as  their  food,  to  the  preparation  of  a  skilful  cook  ; 
whether  they  would  be  better  pleased  with  clothes 
made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  of  leaves  or  of  grass, 
than  with  woollen,  cotton,  linen,  or  silk  habili- 
ments ?  Whether  they  would  like  to  exchange 
our  comfortable  rooms  for  a  hollow  tree,  for  the 
cavity  of  a  rock,  a  den  under  ground,  a  hut  of 
reeds,  or  of  turf  and  branches  of  trees  ?  Finally, 
Whether  they  would  seriously  think  the  rough  at- 
tempts of  savages  at  painting  and  sculpture,  equal 
to  the  statues  of  Phidias,  and  the  paintings  of 
Raphael  ? 

In  following  the  history  of  mankind,  we  observe, 
that,  in  proportion  as  nations  cultivate  their  moral 
and  intellectual  powers,  atrocious  actions  diminish 
in  number  ;  the  manners  and  pleasures  become 
more  refined,  the  legislation  milder,  the  religion 
purified  from  superstition,  and  the  arts  address 
themselves  to  the  finer  emotions  of  the  mind. 

By  observing  also  the  different  classes  of  society, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  different  provinces,   we 


^  EDUCATION    OF   MAN. 

learn,  that  ignorance  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  mo- 
rality. Wherever  education  is  neglected,  de- 
pravity, and  every  kind  of  actions  which  degrade 
mankind,  are  the  most  frequent.  Among  ignorant 
persons,  cceteris  paribus,  rapacity,  cheating,  and 
thieving,  drunkenness,  and  sensual  pleasures,  are 
prominent  features  in  the  character. 

Those,  then,  who  object  to  the  instruction  of 
the  lower  orders,  can  merely  act  from  selfish  mo- 
tives. Being  aware  of  their  superiority,  they  may 
wish  the  inferior  classes  to  be  obedient  to  their 
arbitrary  regulations  ;  for,  unquestionably,  it  is 
much  easier  to  lead  the  ignorant  and  uncultivated 
than  the  instructed  and  reasoning  people.  Know- 
ledge, too,  and  the  habit  of  reflection,  detect  abuses 
and  errors,  which  selfishness  and  pride  may  wish 
to  keep  concealed.  But  whoever  thinks  it  right 
to  cultivate  his  own  mind,  cannot  with  jusstice 
desire  others  to  remain  in  ignorance.  He,  there- 
fore, who  is  versed  in  history,  or  understands  the 
law  of  Christian  charity,  will  join  those  who  con- 
tend for  the  benefit  of  an  instruction,  adapted  to 
every  class  of  society.  This,  then,  will  not  be 
confined  to  reading  and  writing,  but  particularly 
extended  over  the  moral  conduct,  and  all  duties 
and  rights  in  practical  life. 

The  education  of  the  body  is  called  Physical, 
that  of  the  mind.  Moral.  It  is  impossible  to  de- 
cide by  observation,  whether  education  modifies 


GENERAL    VIEW.  35 

the  mind  itself.  We  can  only  show,  that  we  may 
exercise  an  influence  on  the  instruments,  by  which 
the  powers  of  the  mind  manifest  themselves. 
Hence,  the  study  of  the  organization  is  necessary, 
even  with  respect  to  the  moral  education  of  man  ; 
and  for  that  reason,  I  avoid  the  common  division 
of  education  into  physical  and  moral,  though  I 
find  it  proper  to  divide  the  following  considera- 
tions on  education  into  two  Sections.  In  the  first, 
I  shall  speak  of  the  conditions  which  contribute 
to  the  greater  or  less  activity  of  the  powers  of  the 
body  and  of  the  mind  ;  and  in  the  second,  of  their 
aim  and  direction. 


36 


SECTION  I. 

ON  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  EXCITEMENT  ;  OR  THOSE 
WHICH  CONTRIBUTE  TO  THE  ACTIVITY  OF  THE  IN- 
ATE  POWERS  OF  THE  BODY  AS  WELL  AS  OF  THE 
MIND. 

These  important  inquiries  are  not  sufficiently- 
understood,  and  are,  therefore,  too  generally  alto- 
gether overlooked.  They,  however,  deserve  the 
most  serious  attention  of  every  natural  philoso- 
pher. Our  reflections  on  them  may  be  divided 
into  four  Chapters,  corresponding  to  the  natural 
divisions  of  the  conditions  of  excitement  them- 
selves. The  first  condition  is  founded  on  the 
Laws  of  Hereditary  Descent  ;  the  second  on  those 
of  the  Vegetative  Functions  ;  the  third  on  Exer 
cise  ;  and  the  fourth  on  the  Mutual  Influence  of 
the  Powers. 


37 


CHAPTER  I. 


ON   THE    LAWS    OF    HEREDITARY    DESCENT. 

The  development  of  the  human  body  is  favor- 
ed, retarded,  or  disordered,  according  to  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  organization,  in  the  same  way  as  that 
of  other  living  beings.  Consequently,  children 
participate  in  the  bodily  configuration  and  consti 
tution  of  their  parents,  and  also  in  their  tenden- 
cies to  particular  manifestations  of  the  mind,  these 
being  dependent  on  the  individual  parts  of  the 
brain.  The  elucidation  of  these  subjects  is  indis- 
pensable to  a  sound  system  of  education.  Nay,  I 
am  convinced,  that  this  condition  exerts  a  greater 
and  more  permanent  influence  than  any  other, 
which  can  be  introduced  with  the  view  of  perfect- 
ing mankind.  Let  us  first  consider  how  other  or- 
ganized beings  are  improved. 

Florists,  pomologists,  and  horticulturalists,  are 
aware  that  Nature  produces  the  varieties  of  plants, 
and  they  observe  the  circumstances  which  are  fa- 
vourable to  the  improvement  of  certain  qualities. 


38  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

They  know  that  the  first  and  most  important  point 
is  ripe  and  well-conditioned  seed  ; — the  second,  a 
fertile  and  convenient  soil.  In  short,  it  is  a  fact, 
that,  in  order  to  improve  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
propagation  is  attended  to. 

In  perfecting  animals,  or  in  promoting  their  pecu- 
liar qualities,  such  as  the  color  or  figure  of  horses, 
the  wool  of  sheep,  the  smell  of  dogs,  &c.,  country- 
people  have  recourse  to  the  laws  of  propagation. 
By  these  means,  farmers  have  succeeded  in  dimin- 
ishing or  increasing  various  parts  of  animals,  such 
as  their  bones,  muscles,  &c. 

We  might  naturally  suppose,  that  it  would  be 
sufficient  to  mention  the  fact,  that  the  organization 
of  man  is  submitted  to  the  same  general  laws  as 
that  of  animals,  to  induce  reasonable  beings  to 
take  at  least  the  same  care  of  their  own  off*spring 
as  of  their  sheep,  pigs,  dogs,  and  horses.  But  man 
wishes  to  make  himself  an  exception  from  the  im- 
mutable laws  of  the  Creator,  and  the  result  of  his 
ignorance  and  self-conceit  is  lamentable.  As  this 
subject  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  I  shall  enter 
into  a  few  details  upon  it. 

For  the  sake  of  bodily  health,  many  natural 
philosophers,  a  long  time  ago,  insisted  on  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  better  regulation  of  marriage.  Their 
benevolent  desire  was  supported  by  the  constant 
observation,  that  health  depends  on  organization, 


i 


LAWS    OF    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  39 

and  that  the  latter  is  propagated  by  birth.  "  Sir 
John  Sebright,"  says  Dr.  Adams,  (On  the  Pre- 
tended Hereditary  Diseases,  p.  S3.)  "  informs  us, 
that  if  a  flock  of  sheep,  in  which  there  is  any  de- 
fect, are  permitted  to  breed  in  and  in,  the  defect 
will  gradually  increase  among  them  ;  and  Colonel 
Humphries,  by  selecting  for  breeding  a  marked 
variety,  has  succeeded  in  procuring  a  flock  with 
deformed  bones."  Dr.  Adams  adds,  that  if  the 
same  causes  operate  in  man,  we  may  impute  to  it 
many  endemic  peculiarities  found  in  certain  dis- 
tricts, which  have  hitherto  been  imputed  to  the 
water,  and  other  localities. 

Those  who  have  more  confidence  in  facts  than 
in  speculative  reasoning,  cannot  doiibt  that  the 
qualities  of  the  body  are  hereditary.  There  are 
family-faces,  family-likenesses ;  and  also  single 
parts,  such  as  bones,  muscles,  hair  and  skin, 
which  resemble  in  parents  and  in  children.  The 
disposition  to  various  disorders,  as  to  gout,  scrofu- 
la, dropsy,  hydrocephalus,  consumption,  deafness, 
epilepsy,  apoplexy,  idiotism,  insanity,  &c.,  is  fre- 
quently the  inheritance  of  birth.  There  are  few 
families  where  there  is  not  one  part  of  the  body 
weaker  than  the  rest, — the  lungs,  for  instance, 
the  eyes,  the  stomach,  liver,  intestines,  some  oth- 
er viscus,  the  brain,  &c. 

Children  born  of  healthy  parents,  and  belong- 
ing to  a  strong  stock,  always  bring  into  the  world 


40  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

a  system  formed  by  nature  to  resist  the  causes  of 
disease  ;  while  the  children  of  delicate,  sickly 
parents,  are  overpowered  by  the  least  unfavorable 
circumstance.  Medical  men  know  very  well,  that 
in  curing  diseases,  nature  is  oftentimes  more  pow 
erful  than  art,  and  that  the  latter  is  ineffectual,  if 
not  assisted  by  the  former.  Longevity  also  de- 
pends more  on  innate  constitution  than  on  the 
skill  of  physicians.  Is  it  not  then  astonishing, 
that  this  knowledge,  as  a  practical  piece  of  infor- 
mation, is  not  taught  to,  and  disseminated  among 
young  people  ?  Indeed,  it  ought  to  be  familiarly 
and  generally  known  ;  not  because  it  is  expected 
that  every  one  would  be  reasonable  enough  to 
regulate  his  conduct  by  it,  but  in  order  to  induce 
as  many  as  possible  to  do  so.  A  great  number  are 
too  seHish  to  be  guided  in  their  own  enjoyments 
by  a  regard  to  the  condition  of  their  offspring ;  but 
many,  on  the  other  hand,  who  refiect  on  the  fu- 
ture, may  be  induced  to  avoid,  even  from  a  selfish 
motive,  a  union  with  a  person  who  will  be  likely  to 
embitter  their  future  days.  Even  the  unthinking 
must  perceive,  that  the  enjoyments  of  life  are  ren- 
dered impossible,  when  diseases  make  their  rava- 
ges in  a  family ;  and  that  love  for  the  most  part 
ceases,  when  poverty  takes  up  its  abode  in  the 
house.  Others,  who  wish  to  live  in  their  posteri- 
ty, will,  when  acquainted  with  the  immutable  laws 
of  the  Creator,  submit  to  them,  in  order  to  lay  a 
foundation  for  the  prosperity  of  their  descendants. 
The  physical  education,  then,  of  both  sexes  de- 


LAWS    OP    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  41 

serves  the  greatest  attention,  and  it  is  impardona- 
ble  to  neglect  that  of  girls. 

The  laws  of  hereditary  descent  should  be  at- 
tended to,  not  only  with  respect  to  organic  life, 
but  also  to  the  manifestations  of  the  mind,  since 
these  depend  on  the  nervous  system.  There  are 
many  examples  on  record,  of  certain  feelings,  or 
intellectual  powers,  being  inherent  in  whole  fami- 
lies. Now,  if  it  be  ascertained  that  the  hereditary 
condition  of  the  brain  is  the  cause,  there  is  a  great 
additional  motive  to  be  careful  in  the  choice  of  a 
partner  in  marriage.  No  person  of  sense  can  be 
indifferent  about  having  selfish  or  benevolent,  stu- 
pid or  intelligent  children. 

An  objection  may  be  made  against  the  doctrine 
of  hereditary  effects  resulting  from  the  laws  of  pro- 
pagation, viz.  That  men  of  great  talents  often  have 
children  of  little  understanding,  and  that  in  large 
families  there  are  individuals  of  very  different  ca- 
pacities. 

This  observation  shows  at  least  that  the  chil- 
dren are  born  with  different  dispositions,  and  it 
proves  nothing  against  the  laws  of  propagation. 
The  young  ones  of  animals  that  propagate  indis- 
criminately, are  very  different ;  but  when  the 
races  are  pure,  and  all  conditions  attended  to,  the 
nature  of  the  young  can  be  determined  before- 

5* 


42  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

hand.  As  long  as  the  races  of  mankind  are  mix- 
ed, their  progeny  must  vary  extremely.  But  let 
persons  of  determinate  dispositions  breed  in  and 
in,  and  the  races  will  become  distinct.  Moreover, 
the  condition  of  the  mother  is  commonly  less  val- 
ued than  it  ought  to  be.  It  is,  however,  observed, 
that  boys  commonly  resemble  their  mother,  and 
girls  their  father ;  and  that  men  of  great  talents 
generally  descend  from  intelligent  mothers.  But 
as  long  as  eminent  men  are  married  to  partners  of 
inferior  capacities,  the  qualities  of  the  offspring 
must  be  uncertain.  The  Arabs  seem  to  understand 
the  great  importance  of  females,  since  they  do  not 
allow  to  sell  a  female  horse  to  foreigners,  and  note 
the  nobility  of  their  horses  after  the  females. 

The  age  of  propagation  too  is  not  indifferent. 
Animals  are  not  permitted  to  propagate  at  all  ages, 
neither  too  young  nor  too  old,  but  in  the  period  of 
their  strength.  Men  of  talents  and  science  often 
marry  when  their  body,  particularly  the  nervous 
system,  is  exhausted  by  protracted  studies  and 
debilitating  causes.  They  are  seldom  rich  from 
birth,  and  their  condition  rarely  allows  them  to 
choose  during  the  period  of  their  greatest  energy  ; 
yet  they  might  often  accomplish  more  than  they 
do  to  the  benefit  of  their  offspring,  were  they  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  the  laws  of  the  hereditary  de- 
scent, and  the  dependence  of  the  mind  on  the  or- 
ganization of  the  body,  and  would  they  submit  to 


LAWS    OF    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  43 

appreciate  such  laws  more  than  fashionable  man- 
ners and  customs. 

The  age  of  the  parents  is  to  be  considered  both 
in  regard  to  their  own  health,  and  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  their  children.  Young  trees  which  bring 
forth  fruit  are  weak ;  animals  that  propagate  their 
species  too  early  in  life,  generally  do  not  grow 
strong.  Many  women  who  marry  when  very 
young,  and  bear  a  very  numerous  family,  become 
early  victims  to  an  exhausted  constitution. 

Farther,  the  fruit  of  young  plants  is  imperfect. 
The  eggs  of  young  birds  are  very  small ;  the  pro- 
geny of  young  quadrupeds  is  feeble  and  diminu- 
tive ;  and,  in  like  manner,  the  offspring  of  living 
beings,  when  old,  is  weak.  Such  a  progeny, 
therefore,  is  never  destined,  by  country  people,  to 
the  preservation  of  the  species.  Moses  forbade 
the  Jews  to  bring  up  the  firstling  males  of  animals. 
(Deut.  XV.  19 — 23.)  When  both  parents  marry 
early  in  life,  and  have  a  numerous  family,  the  el- 
dest children  commonly  possess  less  talent  than 
those  who  are  born  during  the  period  of  vigor  of 
their  parents. 

The  laws  of  degeneration  belong  to  those  of  he- 
reditary descent,  and  deserve  a  peculiar  attention. 
They  again  are  general  throughout  all  nature. 
Plants  cultivated  on  the  same  spot  degenerate. 
Wheat  must  alternate  with  barley,  flax,  potatoes, 


44  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

or  other  plants.  Where  firs  will  no  longer  grow, 
beeches  will  succeed.  The  seed  of  plants  that  de- 
generate, ought  not  to  be  taken  for  propagation, 
for  they  at  length  perish  entirely  :  nor  ought  the 
sickly  organization  of  one  tree  to  be  engrafted  on 
another.  In  this  way,  we  see  an  explanation  why 
the  same  sort  of  fruit-trees  dies  in  whole  districts, 
the  external  circumstances  of  which  are  unfavora- 
ble. The  sickly  condition  of  the  tree  is  constant- 
ly propagated,  and  it  dies  at  last  by  the  continual 
and  noxious  influence  from  without.  All  trees,  or 
parts  of  the  same  tree,  perish  a  little  sooner,  or 
resist  a  little  longer  than  others,  on  account  of  the 
influence  of  the  branch  on  which  they  are  en- 
grafted. 

The  same  law  of  degeneration  prevails  in  ani- 
mals. Various  circumstances  weaken  their  con- 
stitution, and,  among  various  conditions,  to  pre- 
vent degeneration,  it  is  necessary  to  cross  the 
breed,  and  to  renew  the  blood. 

The  degeneration  of  man,  too,  is  certain,  in  fam- 
ilies who  intermarry  among  themselves.  Uncles 
and  nieces,  or  first  cousins,  or  cousins  who  commit 
this  error  for  several  generations,  have  no  chil- 
dren, or  their  progeny  is  commonly  feeble.  The 
smaller  the  number  of  choice,  the  quicker  the  de- 
generation takes  place,  and  no  class  of  society  can 
be  made  an  exception  from  this  law.  Any  bodily 
or  mental  affliction  which  may  happen  to  originate 


LAWS    OP    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  45 

in  one  individual  soon  affects  such  families.  This 
frequently  happens  among  the  rich  and  high 
ranks ;  and,  as  their  manner  of  living  is  not  con- 
ducive to  bodily  strength,  it  is  quite  natural  that 
there  should  be  so  many  living  proofs  of  the  truth 
of  this  proposition,  which  invites  the  friends  of  hu- 
manity to  admire  the  law  of  compensation. 

The  great  influence  of  propagation  is  ascertain- 
ed also  by  the  fact,  that  it  is  infinitely  more  easy 
by  it  to  keep  up  natural  changes,  and  even  deform- 
ities, than  to  produce  them  by  art.  Deaf  people 
often  have  children  with  the  same  defect ;  while 
circumcision  among  the  Jews  and  Mahomedans 
has  not  yet  become  superfluous.  It  is  more  proba- 
ble that  a  man  born  without  an  arm,  should  have 
children  like  himself,  than  that  he  should  do  so 
whose  arm  has  been  taken  off  by  the  knife  of  the 
surgeon. 

The  laws  of  hereditary  descent  are  still  visible, 
since  the  greater  number  of  first-born  children  are 
girls  ;  since,  in  one  year  more  girls,  in  another 
more  boys  are  born  ;  since,  when  old  and  weak 
men  marry  young  and  vigorous  females,  the  great- 
er number  of  their  children  are  girls,  &c.  These 
eflects  must  have  adequate  causes,  and  by  more 
patient  attention  to  the  phenomena  than  has  hith- 
erto been  paid,  some  valuable  conclusions  might 
be  arrived  at.  May  not  the  particular  and  tran- 
sient state  of  the  same  parents,  at  different  periods, 


46  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

account,  in  some  degree,  for  the  differences  in  their 
children  ?  At  all  events,  the  bodily  constitution 
of  both  parents,  in  every  respect,  ought  to  be  at- 
tended to.  Moses  (Leviticus  xii.  2d  &  5th)  or- 
dered a  longer  period  for  the  purification  of  a  girl 
than  for  that  of  a  boy.  Is  there  a  natural  reason 
for  his  having  done  so  .''  Can  any  inference  be 
drawn  from  the  observation,  that  the  greatest 
number  of  monsters  are  amongst  the  female  sex  ? 

It  is  indeed  a  pity  that  the  laws  of  hereditary 
descent  are  so  much  neglected,  whilst,  by  atten- 
tion to  them,  not  only  the  condition  of  single 
families,  but  of  whole  nations,  might  be  improved 
beyond  imagination,  in  figure,  stature,  complexion, 
health,  talents,  and  moral  feelings.  I  consider 
with  Aristotle,  that  the  natural  and  innate  dif- 
ferences of  man  are  the  basis  of  all  political  econo- 
my. He  who  can  convince  the  world  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent,  and  in- 
duce mankind  to  conduct  themselves  accordingly, 
will  do  more  good  to  them,  and  contribute  more 
to  their  improvement,  than  all  institutionsj  and 
all  systems  of  education.  Yet  they  embrace  more 
than  a  choice,  according  to  the  beauty  of  con- 
figuration and  to  the  vigor  of  body  and  mind. 
The  state  of  health  of  both  parents,  their  age, 
their  previous  manner  of  living,  contribute  to  the 
development  of  the  embryon;  and  the  state  of 
health  of  the  mother  and  her  vital  functions,  as 
digestion,  respiration,  circulation,  &c.  during  preg- 
nancy as  likewise  of  great  weight. 


LAWS    OP    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  47 

"  It  is  probable,"  says  Dr.  Rush,  "  that  the 
qualities  of  body  and  mind  in  parents,  which  pro- 
duce genius  in  children,  may  be  fixed  and  regula- 
ted ;  and  it  is  possible  the  time  may  come,  when 
we  shall  be  able  to  predict  with  certainty  the  in- 
tellectual character  of  children,  by  knowing  the 
specific  nature  of  the  different  intellectual  faculties 
of  their  parents.  The  marriages  of  Danish  men 
with  the  East  Indian  women  produce  children 
that  had  the  countenances  and  vigorous  minds  of 
Europeans  ;  but  no  such  results  appeared  in  the 
children  of  the  East  Indian  women  who  intermar- 
ried with  the  males  of  any  other  European  nation." 
C  On  the  Influence  of  Physical  Causes  on  the  In- 
tellectual Faculties,"  p.  119.) 

Three  successive  generations  appear  to  be  neces- 
sary to  produce  an  eflfectual  change,  be  it  for  health 
or  disease.  "  Si  le  goitre,"  says  Dr.  Fodere, 
"  n'est  qu'  accidental,  et  qu'il  n'y-ait  qu'un  des 
parens  affecte,  les  enfans  ne  naissent  pas  goitreux. 
Si  de  pere  en  fils  un  goitreux  a  epouse  une  goi- 
treuse  pendant  deux  generations,  et  dans  un  pays 
ou  le  goitre  est  endemique,  a  la  troisieme  genera- 
tion Penfant  qui  nail,  n'est  pas  seulement  goitreux, 
mais  il  est  encore  cretin."  ("  Traite  du  Goitre,  et 
du  Cretinisme,"  Paris,  1800,  p.  69.)  According 
to  the  laws  of  the  creation,  therefore,  it  is  said, 
that  "  the  Lord  visits  those  who  hate  him  (in  my 
opinion  who  do  not  submit  to  his  laws,)  to  the 
third  and  fourth  generation  ;"  viz.  by  their  hered- 
itary dispositions. 


48  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

Such  causes  as  produce  what  is  called  the  old 
age  of  nations  deserve  to  be  remarked.  Luxury- 
belongs  to  them,  and  its  influence,  if  continued 
during  several  generations,  weakens  body  and 
mind,  not  only  of  families,  but  of  whole  nations. 
The  degeneration  of  the  organic  condition  of  man, 
in  general,  is  not  sufficiently  understood,  and  is  of 
greater  effect  than  the  political  economists  of 
modern  days  are  aware  of.  This  neglect  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  influential  cause  why  families 
and  nations  disappear. 

The  Reverend  Dr.  Smith,  who  ascribes  par- 
ticularly the  variations  of  man  to  external  cir- 
cumstances, says,  "  that  Germans,  Swedes,  and 
Frenchmen  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
who  live  chiefly  among  themselves,  and  cultivate 
the  habits  and  ideas  of  the  countries  from  which 
they  emigrated,  retain,  even  in  our  climate,  a 
strong  resemblance  to  their  primitive  stock.  Those, 
on  the  contrary,  who  have  not  confined  themselves 
to  the  contracted  circle  of  their  countrymen,  but 
have  mingled  freely  with  the  Anglo-Americans, 
entered  into  their  manners,  and  adopted  their 
ideas,  have  assumed  such  a  likeness  to  them,  that 
it  is  not  easy  now  to  distinguish,  from  one  another, 
people  who  have  sprung  from  such  different  ori- 
gins. 

On  a  closer  examination,  it  will  be  found,  that 
one  stock  may  adopt  the  manners  of  another,  a 


LAWS  OP  HEREDITARY  DESCENT-        49 

Saxon,  for  instance,  the  fashions  of  the  French, 
but  that  the  original  features  of  the  tribes  will 
be  preserved,  as  long  as  they  do  not  intermarry. 
The  genuine  races  of  Highlanders  and  Lowland- 
ers  of  Scotland  will  not  loose  their  originality  by 
exchanging  their  countries,  but  by  intermarrying 
with  each  other. 

The  Jews  are  a  striking  example,  that  climate 
and  external  influences  are  less  powerful  in  chang- 
ing man  than  propagation.  They  are  dispersed 
in  every  country  of  the  globe,  and  though,  owing 
to  the  climate  they  have  inhabited,  their  com- 
plexion may  have  changed,  yet,  being  prohibited 
by  sacred  institutions  from  intermarrying  with 
other  nations,  they  are  still  distinguishable  from 
other  people. 

The  ancient  legislators  were  very  attentive  to 
the  laws  of  propagation.  Moses  complains  (Gen. 
vi.)  that  the  sons  of  God  saw  the  daughters  of 
men,  that  they  were  fair,  that  they  took  them 
wives  of  all  which  they  chose  :  he  divided  his 
people  into  tribes,  but  prohibited,  on  pain  of  death, 
the  intermarriage  of  the  near  relations.  (Levit. 
xviii.) 

The  Greeks,  as   appears  from   their   customs, 
philosophy   and    legislation,    had   particularly   in 
view  the  beauty  and  vigor  of  the  human  constitu- 
tion.    "  As  we,"  says   Plutarch,   ("  De   Nobili- 
6 


50  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

tate,")  "  are  anxious  to  have  dogs  and  horses  from 
a  good  breed,  why  should  we  marry  the  daugh- 
ters of  bad  parents. "  Plato  spoke  against  mar- 
riages betwixt  relations.  He,  as  well  as  Solon 
and  Aristotle,  considered  also  the  age  at  which 
it  was  best  to  marry.  The  ancient  philosophers 
commonly  fixed  it  between  eighteen  and  twenty- 
four  for  a  woman,  and  between  thirty  and  thirty- 
six  for  a  man. 

It  may  be  replied,  that  these  considerations 
can  never  become  practical  rules  of  conduct  for 
society  at  large.  In  the  actual  situation  of  things 
I  will  not  maintain  the  contrary.  But  we  must 
also  admit,  that  the  laws  of  the  Creator  will  not 
change  to  gratify  our  fancy.  If  we  will  not  sub- 
mit to  his  dictates,  we  have  no  right  to  complain 
of  being  punished  by  unavoidable,  though  dis- 
agreeable results.  Christian  principles  are  not 
sufficiently  exercised  in  society,  yet  it  is  not,  on 
this  account,  considered  superfluous  to  teach 
them  ;  and  he  who  loves  mankind  will  wish  for 
their  promulgation.  Now,  the  laws  of  hereditary 
descent  are  in  the  same  situation.  Nay,  if  ob- 
served, they  would  even  tend  to  prepare  mankind 
to  receive  and  keep  the  precepts  of  Christianity, 
which,  in  the  actual  and  common  way  of  Provi- 
dence, seems  impossible. 

I  find  it  also  necessary  to  obviate  another 
objection  which  may  be  made  by  religious  per- 


LAWS    OF    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  51 

sons,  who  are  not  aware  that  the  letter  kills, 
while  the  spirit  vivifies.  Some,  w.ho  are  entirely 
unacquainted  with  natural  causes,  and  who  expect 
all  from  supernatural  influence,  may  be  offended 
by  so  much  being  ascribed  to  the  laws  of  organi- 
zation. If  they  reflect,  and  will  be  consistent 
with  themselves,  they  cannot  reject  any  thing 
that  is  in  nature,  and  the  work  of  the  Creator. 
The  organization  is 'constituted  by  the  same  Al- 
mighty Being  whom  they  implore  to  be  propi- 
tious. If  they  will  submit  to  Him,  they  must  ac- 
knowledge every  law  of  creation.  The  primary 
arrangements  of  Nature  as  certainly  proceed  from 
Him,  as  any  subsequent  revelation.  Shall  we, 
then,  have  no  recourse  to  natural  means  to  cure 
diseases,  because  St.  James  has  admonished  us, 
if  any  one  is  sick,  to  call  for  the  elders  of  the 
ehurch,  to  let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing  him 
with  oil  ?  We  read  in  the  old  Testament,  that 
Elias  prayed  that  it  might  not  rain,  and  it  rained 
not  on  the  earth  for  the  space  of  three  years  and 
six  months  ;  and  he  prayed  again,  and  the  heavens 
gave  rain,  and  the  earth  brought  forth  her  fruit. 
Shall  we  therefore  not  study  the  laws  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  cultivate  the  vegetable  kingdom  ?  Shall 
we  neglect  to  sow,  and  expect  that  by  means  of 
prayers  we  shall  be  permitted  to  rear  ?  In  the 
same  way.  If,  while  we  say  prayers,  we  do  not 
at  the  same  time  submit  to  the  laws  of  hereditary 
descent  and  of  organization,  supernatural  influence 
alone  will  not  give  talents  nor  bodily  health.     The 


52  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

laws  of  the  Creator  have  been  the  first  dictated, 
and  must  be  the  first  obeyed.  A  parent  who  per- 
ceives that  his  child  is  affected  with  disease  and  a 
weak  constitution,  and  who,  while  he  prays  to 
God  for  restoration  of  his  health,  leaves  him  in 
confined  air,  and  under  the  charge  of  careless  or 
ignorant  servants,  has  no  right  to  expect  that  su- 
pernatural influence  will  be  exerted  in  his  favor, 
while  he  continues  to  neglect  his  own  duty  in  con- 
temning the  first  laws  of  creation.  The  Supreme 
Being  gave  us  understanding,  that  we  might  per- 
ceive these  laws  ;  and  having  perceived  them,  it  is 
our  first  duty  to  obey  them  as  His  dictates  ;  and 
having  done  so,  we  may  then,  but  not  till  then, 
expect  His  blessing  to  attend  us.  The  special  obe- 
dience to  the  natural  laws  of  hereditary  descent, 
is  an  indispensable  condition  to  the  improvement 
of  mankind ;  and  nothing  but  ignorance,  supersti- 
tion and  prejudice  can  oppose  it. 

The  influence  of  these  laws  may  be  shown  to 
young  persons,  first  in  plants,  then  in  animals, 
and  at  the  end  in  mankind.  Many  parents  are 
cautious  and  fearful  of  speaking  of  such  notions  to 
their  children,  and  do  not  think  of  the  anxiety 
with  which  children  look  for  information  of  that 
kind,  and  of  the  benefit  they  may  derive  from  it. 
Such  information,  when  given  by  the  parents,  wil! 
be  received  with  confidence  and  respect.  Some 
young  persons  will  possess  reflection  enough  to  at- 
tend to  their  bodily  health,  from  the  consideration 


LAWS    OF    HEREDITARY    DESCENT.  53 

that  their  constitution  will  be  communicated  to 
their  offspring.  I  know  positively,  that  such  a 
proceeding  has  been  more  effectual  and  beneficial 
than  endeavoring  to  prevent  children  from  acquir- 
ing any  knowledge  of  that  kind,  or  to  conceal  the 
effects  of  the  disorderly  satisfaction  of  physical 
love.  This  propensity  deserves  the  same  attention 
which  we  pay  to  hunger  and  thirst.  Both  are  ac- 
tive without  our  will  ;  and  their  activity  must  be 
directed.  Why  should  we  not  have  recourse  to 
the  understanding  as  far  as  possible,  to  regulate 
the  actions,  and  employ  natural  means  of  correc- 
tion against  natural  faults  ?  How  can  we  expect 
that  children  should  suppress  a  strong  internal 
feeling,  without  being  acquainted  with  the  bad 
consequences  of  its  abuses,  and  with  its  destina- 
tion ?  It  seems  therefore  advisable  to  show  the 
dreadful  effects  of  Onanism  to  those  who  are  in- 
clined to  this  aberration  ;  at  first  with  respect  to 
their  own  health,  and  afterwards  in  relation  to 
their  offspring. 

It  has  been  my  object  in  this  Chapter  to  bring 
under  consideration  a  most  important  point,  which 
must  precede,  and  which  will  influence  whatever 
remains  to  be  done  in  education.  Yet  I  do  not 
deny  the  efficacy  of  various  other  conditions  which 
I  shall  examine  in  the  following  pages. 


6* 


54  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


CHAPTER  11. 

ON    THE    LAWS    OF    THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS. 

It  is  reasonablcj  when  we  desire  the  improve- 
ment of  any  living  being,  to  employ  all  the  means 
which  may  contribute  towards  its  perfection.  We 
have  seen  in  the  preceding  Chapter,  that  man  is 
born  sickly  or  healthy,  deformed  or  well  shaped, 
an  idiot  or  a  genius. — in  short,  that  the  human  be- 
ing enters  life  with  the  greatest  modifications  of 
bodily  and  mental  endowments.  The  innate  con- 
stitution, then,  which  depends  on  both  parents, 
and  the  state  of  the  mother  during  pregnancy,  is 
the  basis  of  all  future  development. 

Being  placed  in  the  world,  man  is  subjected  in 
every  respect  to  the  laws  of  organization.  Organ- 
ization is  influenced  by  light,  air,  climate,  nour- 
ishment, bodily  exercise,  rest,  sleep,  cleanhness, 
and  excretions.  The  body  of  man,  like  other  or- 
ganized beings,  undergoes  various  changes  :  it  be- 
gins, increases,  arrives  at  its  full  growth,  decreases, 
and  dies.  There  is  a  certain  regularity  in  the  suc- 
cession of  these  natural  changes  ;  and  accordingly, 
the  duration  of  life  is  divided  into  different  pe- 
riods, commonly  called  ages. 


LAWS  OP  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.     55 

These  changes  cannot  be  entirely  prevented,  but 
they  may  be  accelerated  or  retarded  by  external 
influences.  The  regulation  of  all  the  conditions 
which  contribute  to  the  development  of  the  body 
and  of  its  parts,  and  to  the  duration  of  life,  consti- 
tutes what  is  termed  Physical  Education. 

I  shall  not  endeavor  to  explain  Life.  I  am  sat- 
isfied to  say,  that  it  embraces  all  the  vital  functions 
from  conception  to  death.  It  certainly  depends 
on  various  conditions,  several  of  which  are  not 
yet  sufficiently  understood.  The  chemical  ex- 
planation is  not  more  satisfactory  than  that  founded 
on  mere  mechanical  laws.  Life  is  more  than  the  ef- 
fect of  a  machine,  more  than  a  chrystalization.  The 
life  of  man  is  also  more  than  the  organization  of  a 
plant,  and  even  more  than  that  of  an  animal. 
Some  fluids  belong  to  its  necessary  conditions,  such 
as  caloric  and  the  electric  fluid ;  but  it  remains 
undecided  how  far  some  ancient  and  modern 
physiologists  are  right  or  wrong  in  speaking  of  a 
peculiar  Vital  Principle,  which  in  ancient  times 
often  was  called  the  Soul  of  the  World ;  and  which 
sometimes  has  been  confounded  with  the  immortal 
soul  of  man. 

The  modern  physiologists  consider  rather  the 
functions  of  man  than  the  principles  of  which  he 
is  composed.  They  place  together  the  functions 
without  consciousness,  and  call  them  Automatic 
Life  ;  while  the  functions  with  consciousness  are 
known  under  the  name  of  Animal  or  Phrenic  Life. 


66  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

It  is  not  yet  generally  admitted,  that  the  phrenic, 
like  the  automatic  functions,  depend  on  the  or- 
ganization. Physical  education,  however,  evi- 
dently rises  in  importance,  if  the  manifestations  of 
the  mind  are  modified  in  energy  and  quality  by 
the  influence  of  the  body. 

In  this  respect  various  opinions  have  prevailed, 
and  still  prevail.  There  is  an  ancient  belief  in 
oriental  countries,  that  the  body  prevents  the  soul 
from  communicating  with  superior  beings,  and 
from  exercising  freely  its  powers.  Pythagoras, 
Plato,  and  almost  all  metaphysicians,  fancied,  that 
in  this  life  thoughts  might  be  manifested  without 
the  medium  of  organization.  The  body  was  con- 
sidered as  a  prison  of  the  soul.  Hence  the  great 
tendency  to  deliver  the  immortal  soul  from  the 
mortal  body  ;  hence  the  spontaneous  vexations 
and  torments  of  the  body ;  and  hence  many  non- 
sensical ideas  of  castigation. 

This  opinion,  however  ancient  it  may  be,  is  yet 
erroneous.  Experience,  which  must  constantly 
guide  our  reasoning,  proves  the  dependence  of  the 
mental  operations  on  the  body  during  this  life. 
Phrenology  teaches  the  particulars  of  this  doc- 
trine. 

The  duration  of  life  is  commonly  divided  into 
Infancy,  Adolescence,  Adult,  and  Old  Age.  With 
respect  to  physical  education,  the  time  from  birth 
•to  that  of  full  growth,  is  the  most  important.     It 


5?- 
LAWS  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.     57 

is  preparatory  for  the  rest  of  our  days,  and  has 
also  a  great  influence  on  our  offspring.  It  may  be 
subdivided  into  several  periods,  the  first  of  which 
is  that  from  birth  to  two  years,  or  to  that  of  the 
first  dentition, — I  call  it  Infancy  :  The  second  from 
two  to  seven  years,  or  to  the  second  dentition,  viz. 
Childhood  :  The  third  from  seven  years  to  pu- 
berty, viz.  Adolescence  :  The  fourth  from  pu- 
berty to  full  growth,  or  to  the  period  of  Mar- 
riage. Before  I  enter  into  details  on  these  periods, 
I  shall  notice  some  general  considerations,  and  be- 
gin with  Longevity. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  life  of  man  has  dimin- 
ished with  the  duration  of  the  world  ;  it  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose,  that  the  years  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  were  shorter  than  ours.  It 
is  a  common  observation,  that  the  same  term  has 
quite  different  meanings  among  different  nations, 
and  even  in  the  same  nation  at  different  periods 
of  its  history.  The  English  and  Germans,  for  in- 
stance, measure  the  distances  of  localities  by  miles ; 
but  it  is  known  that  about  six  English  miles  make 
only  one  mile  in  Germany.  In  the  same  way,  it 
may  be  that  the  expression  year^  did  not  always 
denote  the  same  lapse  of  time.  It  is  also  possible 
that  the  duration  of  a  family,  that  is,  of  all  male 
descendants,  was  considered  as  the  continuation  of 
the  same  life,  as  it  is  still  a  common  saying,  that 
parents  continue  to  live  in  their  children.  Men, 
like  quadrupeds,  commonly  live  in  the  state  of 


58  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

nature  five  or  six  times  longer  than  they  grow  ; 
and  many  individuals  of  the  hiiman  race  arrive 
still  at  an  age  corresponding  to  these  proportions. 
But  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Jews 
made  an  exception  from  the  physical  laws  in  gen- 
eral, whilst  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  probable 
that  life,  generally  speaking,  is  shortened  by  arti- 
ficial means,  rather  than  by  the  lapse  of  time  since 
the  creation. 

Among  the  causes  which  contribute  to  longevity, 
the  most  important  is  the  innate  bodily  constitu- 
tion. In  this  respect,  savages  have  an  advantage 
over  civilized  nations.  The  health  of  the  former 
is  more  durable,  and  they  do  not  experience  a 
number  of  bodily  and  mental  disorders  with 
which  the  latter  are  molested. 

A  moderate  temperature  is  more  conducive  to 
old  age  than  great  heat.  The  latter  accelerates 
the  nat  iral  changes  of  organized  beings,  and  brings 
them  sooner  to  death.  Pure,  dry,  and  cold  air, 
moderate  exercise  of  all  the  bodily  and  mental 
faculties,  a  good  physical  education  in  general, 
and  quietude  of  the  mind,  are  all  very  favorable 
to  longevity. 

On  the  contrary,  hereditary  dispositions  to  dis- 
eases, a  weakly  constitution,  great  and  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  intemperance,  want  of  bod- 
ily exercise,  noxious  occupations,  too  ^eat  applica- 


LAWS  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.     59 

tion  of  the  mental  powers,  misery,  unwholesome 
food,  a  want  of  sufficient  rest,  every  kind  of  de- 
bilitating influences,  disagreeable  aflections  of  the 
mind,  such  as  jealousy,  envy,  fear,  grief,  &c.,  are 
hurtful  to  health. 

The  influence  of  nature  in  preserving  the  spe- 
cies, and  also  the  individuals,  is  great,  and  has 
been  spoken  of  at  all  times,  under  the  name  of  vis 
plastica  or  vis  medicatrix  naturce.  It  is  visible  in 
the  healthy  and  diseased  state.  Yet,  however 
effectual  nature,  and  however  favorable  all  cir- 
cumstances may  be,  the  succession  of  the  different 
ages  cannot  be  prevented,  and  death  is  at  last  un- 
avoidable. Physical  education  can  produce  only 
modifications,  but  can  never  annihilate  the  immu- 
table laws  of  the  Creator. 

The  modifications  produced  in  the  body  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  deserve  a  special  attention. 
Plants  and  animals  which  can  live  in  various  cli- 
mates, are  extremely  modified  by  the  influence  of 
outward  conditions.  Fruit-trees  which  have  been 
transplanted  from  the  south  to  the  north,  bring 
forth  the  same  kind  of  fruit,  but  of  modified  quali- 
ties. The  grapes  of  France  excel  those  of  Eng- 
land. 

Leibnitz  has  already  remarked,  that  plants  and 
animals  show  the  same  type  of  configuration,  are 
long  and  slender,  or  short  and  stout,  in  different 


60  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

countries.  We  may  add,  that  it  is  the  same  with 
man.  In  Angora,  the  beard  of  the  men  is  modi- 
fied like  the  hair  of  animals.  In  countries  where 
the  grass  of  the  meadows  is  long,  the  cattle  are 
tall,  and  animals  in  general  have  long  extremities. 
Mankind  shows  a  similar  make. 

The  influence  of  physical  education  may  be  ex- 
amined with  respect  to  the  body  as  a  whole,  or  to 
the  individual  systems,  such  as  the  muscles,  blood- 
vessles,  bones,  nerves,  digestive  organs,  &c.  It  is 
certain  and  generally  known,  that  climate  and  the 
manner  of  living  modify  the  whole  organization 
of  man.  Climate,  in  its  general  acceptation,  de- 
signates not  only  temperature,  but  all  external 
influences,  particularly  air,  light,  dryness  and 
moisture,  and  food.  A  particular  effect  produced 
by  a  high  temperature  on  living  beings  is,  that 
they  undergo  their  natural  changes  with  greater 
celerit}^  than  in  colder  regions.  Annual  plants  oi' 
the  south,  the  aloes,  for  instance,  when  carried 
into  northern  countries,  last  many  years. 

It  is  quite  superfluous  to  insist  on  the  modifica- 
tions produced  in  organized  beings,  by  food,  and 
other  external  circumstances.  Who  docs  not 
know  that  the  constitneut  parts  of  milk,  such  as 
butter,  cheese,  and  whey,  of  the  same  cow,  vary 
according  to  the  food  with  which  she  is  nourish- 
ed ;  that  the  flesh  of  roes,  hares,  rabbits,  fowls, 
&c.,  though  each  sort  preserves  its  specific  taste,  is 


LAWS    OP   THE   VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  61 

greatly  modified  by  the  food  on  which  the  animal 
lives  ? 

This  principle,  however,  is  not  sufficiently  at- 
tended to  in  the  physical  education  of  children  ; 
they  are  commonly  treated  according  to  a  general 
plan,  while  external  circumstances  ought  to  be 
regulated  according  to  the  individual  tempera- 
ment. 

In  this  respect,  a  very  important  question  may 
be  examined,  viz.  How  far  may  external  circum- 
stances contribute  to  the  development  of  indivi- 
dual parts  of  the  body  ?  It  is  known  that  differ- 
ent systems  of  the  body,  such  as  the  muscles,  the 
nerves,  the  digestive  organs,  &c.  do  not  possess 
precisely  equal  activity  in  the  same  individual. 
It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  ascertain, 
that  such  or  such  a  climate,  such  or  such  food,  &c. 
is  more  or  less  favorable  to  the  improvement  of 
particular  systems  of  the  body. 

The  same  degree  of  excitement,  whether  of 
temperature  or  of  food,  may  stimulate  one  sys- 
tem, and  weaken  another.  Great  heat  accele- 
rates the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  debilitates 
the  digestive  organs.  As  the  manifestations  of  the 
mind  depend  on  organization,  it  is  conceivable 
why  even  talents  and  moral  feelings  depend  on  the 
influence  of  climate  and  nourishment.  All  obser- 
vations of  this  kind  have  been  made  merely  with 
7. 


62  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

respect  to  health  and  the  intellect  in  general. 
But  as  medical  men  admit  that  some  drugs  act 
more  on  the  nerves,  others  on  the  blood-vessels, 
others  on  the  skin,  others  on  the  abdominal  or 
urinary  secretions,  why  should  aliments,  and 
other  external  influences,  not  be  more  or  less 
favorable  to  individual  parts  of  the  body  ?  In 
this  way,  nutrition,  and  the  regulation  of  exter- 
nal circumstances,  will  increase  in  importance  as 
they  are  discovered  to  contribute,  not  only  to  the 
development  and  organic  constitution  of  the  body 
in  general,  but  also  to  the  improvement  of  single 
parts. 

In  this  respect,  our  knowledge  is  by  no  means 
satisfactory  ;  yet  every  one  will  feel  the  import- 
ance of  these  considerations,  and  wish  for  posi- 
tive observations.  This  interesting  subject,  in- 
deed, deserves  the  attention,  not  only  of  medical 
men,  but  of  all  those  who  have  the  charge  of  edu- 
cation. 

I  shall  now  add  some  ideas  concerning  the  reg- 
ulation of  the  vegetative  functions,  during  the  dif- 
ferent periods  from  birth  to  the  full  growth,  or  to 
the  time  of  marriage. 


LAWS    OP    THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  63 


FROM  BIRTH  TO  THE  AGE  OF  TWO  YEARS,  OR  INFANCY. 

In  this  age,  the  mortality  of  children  is  the 
greatest ;  and  hence  the  care  bestowed  on  their 
treatment  must  be  proportionate  to  the  dangers  to 
which  they  are  exposed.  Let  us  then  see  what  is 
to  be  done,  with  a  view  to  regulating  external  in- 
fluences upon  them  ;  admitting  however  as  I  have 
already  stated,  that  the  most  important  requisite 
to  health  and  prosperity  is  a  good  innate  constitu- 
tion. Ainoiig  the  external  circumstances  after 
birth,  the  most  essential  are  Temperature  and 
Food  ;  then  follow  air,  light,  cleanliness,  sleep, 
rest  and  bodily  exercise. 


Temperature. 

It  is  known  that  without  a  sufficient  degree  of 
caloric,  no  act  of  vegetation  or  animalization  can 
take  place  ;  and  that  before  birth,  the  child  is 
constantly  exposed  -to  the  temperature  of  a  luke- 
warm bath  ;  was  it  then  reasonable  to  think,  that 
immediately  after  birth  a  low  temperature  should 
be  most  suited  to  its  health  ?  In  new-born  chil- 


64  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

dren  it  frequently  happens,  that  circulation  in 
the  external  vessels  of  the  skin  is  impeded  by  the 
influence  of  cold  air,  and  that  from  this  circum- 
stance a  kind  of  jaundice  arises.  In  more  ad- 
vanced years,  great  changes  of  temperature  are 
hurtful  to  health.  In  hot  climates,  tetanus  is 
often  the  result  of  sudden  refrigeration.  We  also 
see  the  natural  instinct  of  birds  leads  them  to  cov- 
er their  young  with  their  wings.  How,  then,  was 
it  possible  to  fancy  with  J.  J.  Rousseau,  that  new- 
born babes  may  receive  benefit  when  exposed  to 
cold,  or  when  bathed  in  ice-cold  water,  or  in 
snow  ?  Such  a  treatment,  it  is  true,  has  been  de- 
fended by  an  appeal  to  the  example  of  northern 
nations.  But  it  has  been  overlooked,  that  in  tho;^e 
cold  countries  the  whole  animal  economy  of  the 
parents  is  different,  and  that  the  children  parti- 
cipate in  their  bodily  constitutions.  The  mo^. 
thers  in  northern  regions  digest  things  which  the 
delicate  women  of  the  south  could  not  take  with-^ 
out  injury.  It  would,  however,  be  as  reasonable 
to  feed  a  southern  mother  on  fish  oil,  as  to  bathe 
her  tender  offspring  in  ice-cajd  water.  The  had 
effect  of  cold-bathing  upon  new-born  children  is 
now  ascertained,  and  this  nonsense  has  been  given 
up.  It  is  not,  however,  my  opinion  ihixt  young- 
children  ought  to  be  brought  up  as  in  a  hot-house, 
I  grant  that  they  are  often  kept  too  warm  and  too 
much  wrapped  up.  Man  being  obliged  to  bear 
various  temperatures,  children  should  be  acous- 
tomed  to  them  by  degrees.    But  t^\Q  w^ak^r  aad 


LAWS  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.     65 

the  more  delicate  children  are,  the  more  care  is 
requisite.  In  general,  however,  cold  is  better 
borne  by  young  than  by  adult  persons. 


Food. 

It  is  scarcely  imaginable  how  the  simple  pro- 
ceedings of  Nature  should  be  neglected,  and  fan- 
tastical dreams  substituted  in  their  place  ;  how 
any  one,  for  instance,  could  doubt,  whether,  dur- 
ing the  first  days,  the  milk  of  the  mother  were 
wholesome  to  the  suckling,  whilst  calves,  puppies, 
and  the  young  of  all  quadrupeds,  suck  immediate- 
ly after  birth.  Why  will  man  alone  disdain  the 
laws  of  Nature,  who  takes  so  much  care  for  the 
preservation  of  the  species  ?  How  was  it  possible 
to  think,  that  honey,  syrup  of  rhubarb,  or  even 
wine  was  more  wholesome  to  young  babes  than 
their  mother's  milk,  which  at  the  beginning  is 
thin,  watery,  and  fit  to  evacuate  the  meconium 
collected  in  the  child's  intestines,  and  which,  after 
a  few  days,  becomes  thicker  and  more  nutritious  ? 
Nothing  but  ignorance  would  endeavor  to  gov- 
ern Nature.  Thus,  the  mother,  after  having  taken 
rest  from  her  labors,  and  some  restoring  nourish- 
ment, should,  as  soon  as  she  has  got  milk,  give 
suck  to  her  child.  In  cases  only  where  she  has 
got  no  milk,  light  artificial  nourishment  ought  to 
be  given,  till  Nature  supplies  a  better  food. 

7* 


66  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

Much  has  been  said  upon  the  question,  whether 
the  child  is  better  nourished  by  its  mother's  milk 
or  by  that  of  another  nurse,  or  by  heterogeneous 
substances.  I  think  nature  must  decide.  Expe- 
rience shows,  that,  cceteris  panbus,  a  plant  succeeds 
better  if  it  be  not  transplanted  from  one  spot  to 
another  ;  and,  that  young  trees  transplanted  from 
a  fertile  soil  into  a  barren  one,  languish  or  perish  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  left  as  they  were,  they 
grow  luxuriantly.  Young  birds  may  be  nourished 
with  eggs,  viz.  with  substances  on  which  they 
lived  in  the  embryo  state.  Young  mammalia  also 
may  be  well  fed  upon  milk  and  eggs  ;  and  why 
should  it  not  be  the  same  with  young  children  ? 

If  the  mother  be  healthy,  and  her  milk  nourish- 
ing, it  will  agree  the  best  with  the  digestive  pow- 
ers of  the  child  ;  and  by  giving  suck,  the  mother 
will  be  freed  from  various  complaints,  noticed 
by  many  medical  writers  as  the  result  of  neglect- 
ing the  first  duty  of  a  mother.  In  many  cases, 
however,  it  will  be  better  for  the  mother,  for  the 
child,  or  for  both,  to  feed  the  child  on  the  milk  of 
a  nurse  ;  or,  if  this  be  impossible,  by  other  ali- 
mentary substances.  Many  mothers  of  a  delicate 
constitution  are  weakened  and  fall  into  consump- 
tion in  consequence  of  giving  suck.  Many  chil- 
dren also  perish  in  such  cases  from  want  of  suffi- 
cient nourishment.  A  mother  is  certainly  blame- 
able,  if,  from  a  love  of  dissipation  and  perpetual 
amusement,  she  persuades  herself  that  she  is  sent 


LAWS    OF   THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  67 

into  the  world  merely  to  pass  through  it  in  the 
most  easy  manner.  But  in  the  above-mentioned 
examples,  it  is  most  advisable  to  have  recourse  to 
the  milk  of  a  healthy  nurse,  who,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, should  resemble  the  mother  in  age,  tempera- 
ment, and  in  the  period  of  her  delivery.  If  new- 
born children  are  given  to  nurses  who  have  been 
delivered  some  time  before,  artificial  means,  such 
as  syrup  of  rhubarb,  or  chiccory,  generally  be- 
come necessary,  to  evacuate  the  meconium  ;  or 
we  may  act  on  the  babe  by  the  medium  of  the 
nurse,  in  giving  her  alimentary  substances  that 
make  her  milk  thin  and  clear,  or  even  that  are 
slightly  purgative. 

The  milk  of  a  wet-nurse  varies  according  to  her 
age,  her  bodily  constitution,  to  the  food  she  takes, 
and  according  to  her  manner  of  living  in  general. 
She  must  avoid  every  thing  which  disturbs  di- 
gestion, particularly  strong  spices,  spirituous  li- 
quors, and  disagreeable  affections  of  the  mind. 
The  suckling  participates  in  her  bodily  disorders. 
It  is  liable  through  her  to  vomiting,  to  hiccough, 
to  pain  of  the  belly,  diarrhoea,  uneasiness,  to  con- 
vulsive motions,  and  various  other  complaints. 

Bad  digestion,  and  all  symptoms  which  result 
from  it,  are  frequently  caused  by  feeding  the  in- 
fant immediately  after  birth  with  artificial  ali- 
ments, such  as  panada,  pap,  &c.  It  will  be  found 
that  new-born  children  succeed  best,  if  they  live 


bo  EDUCATION   OF   MAN. 

for  the  first  three  months  only  on  the  milk  of  the 
mother,  or  of  a  sound  nurse.  By  degrees,  they 
may  be  accustomed  to  some  other  food,  according 
to  their  temperament  and  digestive  powers,  begin- 
ning with  liquids,  such  as  milk  and  sugar,  broth, 
boiled  biscuit,  rice-cream,  &c.  and  so  go  on  to 
solids.  The  younger  the  child  is,  the  less  nour- 
ishment should  be  given  at  once,  and  the  oftener 
repeated  :  older  children  may  take  more  food,  and 
at  greater  intervals. 

The  nurse's  milk  certainly  has  great  influence 
on  the  development  of  the  suckling.  Those, 
however,  who  think  that  it  imbibes  the  moral 
character  of  its  nurse  with  her  milk,  are  mistaken. 
If  it  were  true,  that  a  child  brought  up  upon  goat's 
milk  was  fond  of  jumping,  that  another  fed  with 
swine's  milk  was  dirty,  it  would  follow  that  adult 
people  ought  also  to  adopt  the  character  of  the 
animals  on  whose  flesh  they  live.  Men  and 
women  who  live  in  the  same  manner,  would  be 
endowed  with  the  same  affective  and  intellectual 
faculties.  Nor  could  it  happen,  that  different 
children,  nourished  by  the  same  mother,  should 
show  quite  different  characters,  even  before  they 
had  taken  any  heterogeneous  food.  Thu^,  the 
nurse's  milk  will  contribute  to  the  nourishment 
and  development  of  the  instruments  of  the  mind  ; 
but  it  will  not  give  rise  to  determinate  qualities. 
Her  moral  character  may  change  her  milk  with 
respect  to  its   healthy  condition,   but  it  cannot 


LAWS    OP  TI^J    VflGETATlVi:  :FUNCTIONS.  69 

produce  talents  or  feelings.  Finally,  the  mental 
.powers  of  children,  though  innate,  are  more  or  less 
exercised  and  directed  by  the  nurse's  temper  and 
mental  capacity,  and  the  nurse  is  the  first  moral 
jand  intellectual  instructor. 


Air, 


Atmospheric  air  is  another  indispensable  con- 
dition of  human  life,  and  its  physical  properties 
and  constituent  parts,  have  an  influence  on  all  the 
vital  functions.  Its  transparency  is  necessary  to 
vision,  or  to  the  passage  of  light  :  its  fluidity 
permits  the  free  motion  of  the  body  in  it.  In  vir- 
tue of  this  quality  it  admits  also  of  being  changed 
or  renewed.  Its  elasticity  in  propagating  its  vi- 
brations assists  the  sense  of  hearing.  Its  weight 
GiOmpresses  the  fluid  and  solid  parts  of  our  or 
ganization.  Moreover,  as  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere  is  commonly  below  that  of  our  body, 
the  air  receives  the  superfluity  of  caloric.  G«n- 
erally,  however,  we  are  obliged  to  guard  against 
the  disagreeable  sensations  of  cold  caused  by  the 
too  great  privation  of  caloric. 

The  <Jonstituent  parts  of  the  atmosphere  are  ex- 
tremely important  to  the  body.  Its  oxygen  and 
caloric  are  essential  to  the  sustenance  of  life.  Its 
azote,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid  gas,  water,  elec- 
trio  fluidj  and  the  various  exhalations  of  plants 


70  EDUCATION   OP   MAN. 

and  animals,  have  a  great  influence  on  the  func- 
tions of  organized  bodies.  Certain  conditions  of 
the  atmosphere  cause  plants  of  different  kinds  to 
perish.  Some  winds  and  conditions  of  weather 
produce  epidemic  diseases  among  animals  and 
mankind.  In  some  persons,  the  digestive  powers 
are  disturbed  at  the  approach  of  a  storm.  Per- 
sons whose  limbs  have  been  injured  by  wounds, 
can  foretell  the  changes  of  the  weather  by  the 
pains  they  feel.  Nervous  and  delicate  constitu- 
tions perceive  the  slightest  diffierence  in  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere.  Many  of  them  know  by  their 
bodily  sensations  whether  the  wind  blows  from 
the  north,  east,  or  west. 

New-born  children,  according  to  their  innate 
temperaments,  are  more  or  less  benefitted  or  dis- 
turbed by  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  Some 
constitutions  require  a  dry  and  others  a  moist  air. 
it  is,  however,  a  general  rule,  that  it  should  be 
pure,  and  not  impregnated  with  noxious  exhala- 
tions. 


Ught, 

The  influence  of  light  is  also  necessary  to  the 
development  and  health  of  organized  bodies  in 
general.  It  changes  the  color  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, and  the  complexion  of  man.  Plants  kept 
in  darkness  grow  pale  and  yellow.     Worms  and 


LAWS    OF    THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  71 

insects  confined  to  dark  places  remain  white. 
Those  who  spend  their  lives  in  their  closets,  have 
a  pale  and  yellowish  complexion.  The  whole 
organization,  being  deprived  of  light,  grows  weak 
and  fat.  It  is  affected  with  scurvy  or  putrid  com- 
plaints, and  the  liver  enlarges.  Hence  dark  habi- 
tations, narrow  streets,  high  houses,  little  win- 
dows, and  whatever  shuts  out  light  from  dwelling- 
places,  is  unwholesome. 

Light  awakes  us  from  sleep ;  it  excites  all 
ftmctions  of  the  body,  particularly  those  of  the 
skin.  Its  sudden  impression  excites  sternutation. 
Too  much  light  produces  headach,  inflammation 
of  the  eyes,  of  the  skin,  of  the  throat,  and  of  the 
brain  ;  hence,  its  regulation  is  of  great  import- 
ance. 

The  eyes  of  new-born  children  should  not  be 
exposed  to  a  strong  light  at  once,  and  when  they 
begin  to  see,  they  ought  to  be  placed  so  that  the 
light  is  before  them,  since  they  always  direct 
their  eyes  towards  it,  and  may  acquire  an  irregu- 
lar look,  the  eyeballs  being  turned  too  much  up- 
wards or  sidewards. 


Cleanliness. 

The  skin  having  a  great  influence  on  the  pre- 
servation of  health,  by  its  absorption  and  excre- 


70-  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

tion,  its  pores  must  be  kept  open  by  washing  the 
body,  and  by  changing  the  swaddling-clothes 
and  linen  whenever  they  are  unclean.  According 
to  the  condition  of  the  skin,  it  may  be  washed 
with  like  warm  water  only,  or  with  water  and 
wine,  to  strengthen  it,  or  rubbed  over  with  some 
oily  substance  if  it  be  dry  and  rough. 

Some  parts,  such  as  the  folds  of  the  neck,  be- 
liind  the  ears,  the  interior  of  the  legs,  &c.  which 
are  liable  to  be  inflamed,  deserve  particular  atten- 
tion. They  may  be  washed  with  a  solution  of 
alum,  or  powdered  with  pubis  lycopodii,  or  be- 
smeared with  cacao-butter,  oil,  or  any  other  pure 
greasy  substance.  I  have  already  mentioned,  that 
children  should  be  accustomed  by  degrees  to  a 
lower  temperature  :  hence  the  water  or  the  bath 
employed  as  the  means  of  cleanliness,  must  grad- 
ually be  used  colder  and  colder.  The  body,  like 
the  face,  might  be  exposed  by  degrees  to  the  at- 
mosphere. 


Sleeps  Watching,  Rest,  and  Bodily  Exercise. 

Before  birth,  children  seem  to  sleep  almost  con- 
tinually. After  birth,  the  younger  the  infant,  the 
more  sleep  it  requires.  Young  children  then 
should  never  be  awakened,  and  be  allowed  to 
sleep  as  long  as  they  please.  It  is,  however, 
wrong-  to  employ  soporiferous  means  to  ppodace>; 


LAWS  OP  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.     73 

sleep.  On  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  soon 
accustomed  to  awake  and  to  fall  asleep  at  a  cer- 
tain hour,  and  this  habit  is  useful  in  various  re- 
spects. 

The  free  exercise  of  their  limbs  is  very  advan- 
tageous to  them.  No  part  of  the  body  ought  to 
be  pressed.  It  was  an  absurd  custom  to  tie  the 
tender  creatures,  and  to  impede  all  their  motions. 
It  is  particularly  necessary  to  attend  to  the  head, 
and  not  to  let  it  fall  backward,  since  the  nerves  of 
the  spinal  cord  may  suffer  from  pressure,  on  ac- 
count of  the  cartilaginous  state  of  the  vertebral 
processes. 

We  ought  not  to  be  uneasy  when  children  cry 
a  little.  By  crying,  the  lungs  are  distended  and 
strengthened,  the  eyes  and  nostrils  are  cleaned, 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  promoted.  It 
is  imprudent  to  lift  up  children  by  one  part  only, 
such  as  "by  one  hand  or  one  arm,  luxations  being 
easily  the  result  of  this  practice.  It  is  also  wrong 
to  place  delicate  and  fat  children  too  early  on 
their  legs,  since  curvations  of  the  spine  and  hip 
bones  may  be  thereby  produced.  Moreover,  the 
thorax  and  shoulders  are  often  injured  by  leading- 
strings,  which,  in  consequence,  ought  to  be  abol- 
ished. It  is  true,  that  many  children  are  strong 
enough  to  resist,  but  delicate  ones  must  frequently 
suffer  by  them.     Too  violent  shaking  may  injure 

the  stomach  and  brain,   and  produce  vomiting, 
8 


74  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

principally  at  the  moment  when  the  stomach  is 
full.  Bodily  exercise  is  of  great  influence,  but  it 
is  to  be  directed  with  caution. 


PERIOD  II. 


PROM  THE  AGE  OP  TWO  YEARS,  TO  THAT  OP  SEVEN,  OR 
CHILDHOOD. 

Before  I  consider  the  particularities  of  this  pe- 
riod, it  will  be  interesting  to  advert  to  a  few  cir- 
cumstances with  respect  to  dentition.  At  first,  the 
natural  food  of  children  is  liquid  ;  but  about  the 
seventh  month,  instruments  which  are  fit  to  assist 
the  digestion  of  solid  aliments,  viz.  the  teeth,  ap- 
pear. The  development  of  these  organs  is  often 
the  cause  of  various  complaints.  The  saliva  is 
generally  secreted  copiously,  frequent  sneezing  oc 
curs,  the  gums  grow  red  and  hot,  sometimes  they 
are  swollen,  one  or  both  cheeks  are  red  ;  the  child 
carries  his  hands,  and  every  thing  he  holds,  into 
his  mouth,  and  presses  the  gums  against  it.  At 
the  end,  white  spots  are  seen  where  the  teeth  ap- 
pear. Commonly  the  two  middle  incisors  of  the 
lower  jaw  first  cut  through  the  substance  of  the 
gums.  A  little  while  after,  the  corresponding  in^ 
cisory  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  show  themselves, 
then  the  lateral  incisors,  the  eye-teeth,  and  the 


LAWS    OP    THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  75 

lateral  grinders.  When  the  small  molar  teeth 
have  come  through  at  the  age  of  about  two  years, 
the  first  dentition  is  complete,  and  the  life  of  the 
child,  which  before  was  precarious,  is  then  more 
secure ;  for  it  is  ascertained  that  a  third  part  of 
children  dies  before  the  age  of  twenty-four  months. 

The  growth  of  teeth,  though  a  natural  operatioii 
causes  various  disorders  in  the  vital  functions  of 
children.  Diarrhoeas  and  convulsions  are  the 
most  fatal  accidents  attending  difficult  dentition. 
The  state  of  the  jaws  alone,  or,  by  sympathy  of 
several  other  parts,  sometimes  of  the  whole  body, 
is  inflammatory.  Hence  the  treatment  of  such 
children  must  be  conformable.  As  their  constitu- 
tions, however,  are  extremely  modified,  a  physi- 
cian ought  to  be  intrusted  with  the  particular  care 
of  them.  The  general  rule  is,  that  every  kind  of 
stimulus  ought  to  be  avoided.  Tepid  bathing  is 
an  excellent  antiphlogistic. 

It  may  be  observed  in  general,  that  in  infancy 
the  vital  motions  tend  particularly  toward  the  head, 
and  that,  therefore,  this  part  is  the  principal  seat 
of  the  afflictions  peculiar  to  this  age. 

In  order  to  favor  the  cutting  through  of  the 
teeth,  the  gums  may  be  rubbed  with  sugar  or  bits 
of  althea-root,  moistened  with  honey  or  syrup, 
and  kept  between  the  jaws.  The  nurse  may  also 
introduce  her  little  finger,  moistened  with  honey. 


76  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

between  the  gums  of  the  child,  to  soften  them, 
and  to  relieve  the  pains  of  the  young-  creature. 
Sometimes  little  incisions  are  made  into  the  gums 
with  evident  advantage.  The  excretions  of  the 
skin  and  bowels  must  be  kept  free. 

To  the  twenty  teeth  of  the  first  dentition  two 
new  grinders  in  each  jaw  are  added  at  about  the 
end  of  the  fourth  year.  They  differ  from  those 
that  preceded  them  in  this,  that  they  are  destined 
to  remain  throughout  life,  whilst  the  primitive  or 
milk-teeth  are  lost  at  seven  years  of  age,  in  the 
same  order  in  which  they  appeared,  and  are  re- 
placed by  new  teeth,  better  formed,  and  provided 
with  longer  and  more  perfect  roots.  Towards 
the  ninth  year  two  new  large  grinders  come  forth 
beyond  the  others.  There  are  then  twenty- 
eight  teeth.  Between  eighteen  and  thirty,  or 
sometimes  still  later,  the  denies  sapientice,  two  in 
each  jaw,  complete  the  second  dentition. 

Dentition,  like  all  other  acts  of  the  living  econ- 
omy, is  subject  to  endless  variations.  There  are 
instances  of  children  that  have  come  into  the  world 
with  one  or  two  incisors,  and  there  are  often  su- 
pernumerary teeth.  It  is  difficult  to  say  why  the 
primitive  teeth  are  detached  and  replaced  by  others, 
which  have  remained  so  long  buried  within  the 
alveolar  processes.  Teeth  of  a  third  set  have  been 
known  to  be  cut  in  very  old  people. 


LAWS  OP  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.    77 

Generally  speaking,  teeth  are  not  taken  all  the 
care  of  which  their  importance  demands.  They 
ought  at  least  to  be  kept  clean.  Those  who  neg- 
lect this  duty,  offend  against  the  first  requisitioa 
of  nature  ;  and  if  they  are  punished  by  tooth-ache, 
they  receive  only  their  desert.  The  condition  of 
the  teeth  certainly  depends  on  the  whole  constitu- 
tion of  the  body  ;  and  in  many  cases,  the  advice  of 
a  good  dentist,  who  understands  not  only  the 
operative  part  of  his  art,  but  also  the  animal  econ- 
omy, is  to  be  recommended. 

The  teeth  are  in  close  relation  with  nourish- 
ment, and  this  deserves  particular  attention.  The 
necessity  of  taking  nutritive  substances  is  general- 
ly known  and  indicated  by  hunger  and  thirst. 
The  nourishment  must  be  modified  in  quantity 
and  quality  according  to  age,  to  the  bodily  con- 
stitution, to  climate,  to  season,  and  to  the  manner 
of  livb^^.  'The  influence  of  different  kinds  of  food 
on  the  whole  constitution  is  evident,  from  the 
modified  flesh  of  animals  of  the  same  species,  fed 
on  various  aliments.  It  is  useful  to  vary  the  food, 
and  nature,  who  has  assigned  to  different  animals 
their  different  aliments,  has  in  this  respect  allowed 
to  man  the  greatest  variety.  He  is  almost  omni- 
vorous, and  he  alone  understands  the  art  of  cook- 
ery, by  which  he  facilitates  digestion. 

In  children,  the  functions  of  nutrition  are  quick- 
er ;  they  die  sooner  of  inanition  than  adult  per- 
8* 


T6  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

sons  ;  they  require  more  frequent  feeding,  and  a 
larger  quantity  of  food,  as  they  not  only  change 
the  matter  of  their  body,  but  increase  also. 

As  children  grow  stronger,  they  will  digest  sub- 
stances of  a  heterogeneous  and  more  solid  nature. 
In  general,  the  more  simple  and  plain,  the  better 
are  the  aliments  ;  and  every  food  which  digests 
is  wholesome.  It  is,  however,  known,  that  lym- 
phatic constitutions  require  nutritive  and  invig- 
orating substances  ;  that  nervous  temperaments 
suffer  from  stimuli,  and  stand  in  need  of  light  and 
simple  aliments  ;  and  that  weak  bowels  do  not 
bear  vegetables,  fruit,  and  paste,  these  aliments 
giving  rise  to  worms  and  scrofulous  diseases. 
Such  intestines  then  must  be  strengthened  by  an- 
imal food,  steel-water,  some  wine  and  bitters. 

In  cold  climates  animal  food  is  necessary  to 
man  ;  he  grows  pale  and  languishing  on  vegetables. 
In  hot  countries,  on  the  contrary,  fruit  and  vege- 
tables nourish  sufficiently,  their  nature  being  quite 
different  from  that  of  plants  in  northern  regions. 
This  is  evident,  since  the  spices  we  take  to  assist 
digestion,  belong  to  the  vegetables  which  grow  in 
southern  climates.  A  cold  dry  air  excites  the  ap- 
petite, while  a  hot  and  moist  atmosphere  weakens 
the  digestive  organs. 

The  alvine  and  cutaneous  excretions  are  in  in- 
timate connection  with  nutrition.     Noxious  par- 


LAWS    OF    THE    VEGETATIVE    FUNCTIONS.  79 

tides,  when  they  remain  in  the  intestines,  are 
absorbed  and  brought  into  the  circulation.  The 
abdomen  being  constipated,  the  bloodvessels  are 
compressed,  the  circulation  is  impeded,  and  piles 
are  produced.  The  blood  is  carried  to  the  brain, 
and  causes  head-ache.  Thus,  the  excretions  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  and  regulated.  They 
vary  in  quantity  and  quality  according  to  age, 
temperament,  nutrition,  weather  and  season.  Per- 
spiration is  more  considerable  in  youth  than  in 
old  age,  more  in  hot  than  in  cold  weather,  more 
in  irritable  than  in  inert  temperaments.  Children 
suffer  from  being  kept  too  warm.  Yet  too  sudden 
and  too  great  changes  of  temperature  produce  in 
them,  as  well  as  in  adult  persons,  catarrhal  affec- 
tions, coughing,  inflammation,  diarrhoeas,  &c. 

The  skin  ought  to  be  kept  clean,  exposed  to 
light  and  the  air,  and  thus  rendered  less  sensible 
to  external  impressions.  Health  is  preferable  to 
a  pale  white  skin  and  a  sickly  constitution.  With 
respect  to  clothing,  the  general  rule  is,  that  no 
part  of  the  body  ought  to  be  pressed.  Weak  or- 
gans may  be  supported,  and  the  whole  body  de- 
fended against  cold,  but  all  the  movements  of  the 
body  ought  to  be  free  and  easy.  It  is  a  false  taste 
to  hurt  the  health,  or  to  injure  the  vital  functions 
of  females  with  a  view  to  increase  their  beauty. 
A  sedentary  life  is  adverse  to  health  in  general, 
particularly  to  that  of  children.  It  is  the  cause  of 
incalculable  mischief.  Children  require  more 
bodily  exercise,  and  more  sleep  than  adults. 


80  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

During  childhood,  as  well  as  in  infancy,  the 
regulation  of  the  vegetative  functions  ought  to  be 
the  most  important  point  of  education.  A  good 
and  healthy  organization  is  the  basis  of  all  employ- 
ment and  of  all  enjoyment.  Many  parents,  how- 
ever, are  anxious  to  cultivate  the  mind  at  the 
expense  of  the  body.  They  think  they  cannot'in- 
struct  their  offspring  early  enough  to  read  and  to 
write,  whilst  their  bodijy  constitution  and  health 
are  everlooked.  Children  are  shut  up,  forced  ti5 
sit  quiet,  and  to  breathe  a  confined  air.  This  er- 
ror is  the  greater,  the  more  delicate  the  children, 
and  the  more  premature  their  mental  powers  are. 
The  bodily  powers  of  such  children  are  sooner  ex- 
hausted, they  suffer  from  4ispepsia,  headache, 
and  a  host  of  nervous  complaints ;  their  brain  is 
liable  to  inflammation  and  serious  effusions;  and  a 
premature  death  is  frequently  the  consequence  of 
such  a  violation  of  nature.  It  is  indeed  to  be  la- 
mented, that  the  influence  of  the  physical  on  the 
moral  part  of  man  is  not  sufficiently  understood. 
There  are  parents  who  will  pay  masters  very 
dearly,  in  hope  of  giving  excellency  to  their  chil- 
dren, but  who  will  hesitate  to  spend  the  tenth 
part  to  procure  them  bodily  health.  Some  by  an 
absurd  infatuation,  take  their  own  constitutions  as 
a  measure  of  those  of  their  children,  and  because 
they  themselves  in  advanced  life  can  support  con- 
finement and  intense  application  with  little  injury 
to  health,  they  conclude  that  their  young  and  deli- 
cate children  can  do  the  same.     Such  notions  are 


LAWS  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.    81 

altogether  erroneous, — bodily  deformities,  curved 
spines  and  unfitness  for  various  occupations,  and 
the  fulfilment  of  future  duties,  frequently  result 
from  such  misunderstood  management  of  children. 
The  advantages  of  a  sound  body  are  incalculable 
for  the  individuals  themselves,  their  friends,  and 
their  posterity.  Body  and  mind  ought  to  be  cul- 
tivated in  harmony,  and  neither  of  them  at  the 
expense  of  the  other.  Health  should  be  the  basis, 
and  instruction  the  ornament  of  early  education. 
The  development  of  the  body  will  assist  the  man- 
ifestations of  the  mind,  and  a  good  mental  educa- 
tion will  contribute  to  bodily  health.  The  organs 
of  the  mental  operations,  when  they  are  too  soon 
and  too  much  exercised,  suffer  and  become  unfit 
for  their  functions.  This  explains  the  reason  why 
young  geniuses  often  descend  at  a  later  age  into  the 
class  of  common  men.  Indeed,  experience  shows, 
that  among  children  of  almost  equal  dispositions, 
those  who  are  brought  up  without  particular  care, 
and  begin  to  read  and  to  write,  when  their  bodily 
constitution  has  acquired  some  solidity,  soon  over- 
take those  who  are  dragged  early  to  their  spelling- 
books  at  the  detriment  of  their  bodily  frame.  No 
school  education,  strictly  speaking,  ought  to  be- 
gin before  seven  years  of  age.  We  shall,  how- 
ever, see  in  the  fbllowing  chapter,  on  the  laws  of 
exercise,  that  many  ideas  and  notions  may  be  com- 
municated to  children  by  other  means  than  books, 
or  by  keeping  them  quiet  on  benches.  When 
education  sh^U  become  practical  and  applicable  to 


82  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

the  future  destination  of  individuals,  children  will 
be  less  plagued  with  nothings,  but  they  will  be 
made  answerable  not  only  for  their  natural  gifts  of 
intellect,  but  also  for  the  just  employment  of  their 
moral  powers  and  the  preservation  and  cultivation 
of  their  bodily  constitution,  since  vigor  in  it  is  in- 
dispensable to  enjoyment  and  usefulness.  They 
will  be  made  acquainted  with  the  natural  laws  of 
nutrition  and  all  vital  functions,  and  with  their  in- 
fluence on  health. 

The  import  of  the  laws  of  the  vegetative  func- 
tions is  so  great,  that  those  who  direct  mankind, 
ought  to  be  permitted  to  regulate  them  in  many 
respects.  The  Mosaic  law  may  serve  as  a  fine 
specimen.  All  ancient  legislators  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  these  laws,  as  well  as  to  those  of  hereditary 
descent.  This  knowledge  will  be  of  greater  use 
than  to  forbid  eating  meat  on  certain  days.  Teach- 
ers ought  to  know,  that  nothing  is  unclean  or  an 
abomination  in  itself,  but  becomes  so  by  being  ill 
used.  Man  must  eat  and  drink  to  live,  but  he 
ought  to  avoid  all  unwholesome  food,  and  what- 
ever disturbs  his  health. 

The  submission  of  man  to  the  laws  of  the  veg- 
etative functions  is  necessary  during  his  whole 
life,  but  particularly  from  birth  to  the  age  of  com- 
plete development,  since  the  time  of  growth  is 
preparatory  for  the  rest  of  life. 


LAWS  OP  THE  VEGETATIVE  FUNCTIONS.    83 

An  additional  observation  concerning  the  vege- 
tative functions  is,  that  they,  like  all  others,  admit 
of  great  modifications,  nay,  even  of  idiosyncrasies. 
Soiiie  persons  on  account  of  their  innate  vigor  and 
strong  constitution  succeed  under  all  circumstances  : 
they  resist  all  noxious  influences,  they  digest  what- 
ever they  eat,  whilst  others  suffer  from  particular 
aliments,  such  as  mutton,  pigeon,  veal,  cauliflower, 
&c.  These  latter  and  all  other  particularities  can 
only  be  observed,  but  can  never  be  explained.  In 
regard  to  them,  every  one  must  be  his  own  physi- 
cian. Demosthenes  and  Haller  were  kept  in  a 
state  of  regular  excitement  by  drinking  nothing 
but  water.  Coflee  was  the  favorite  stimulus  of 
Voltaire,  and  tea  that  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  lived  upon  vegetables  when  he  was 
employed  in  composing  his  famous  treatise  on 
Optics.  HoBBEs  sat  in  his  study,  enveloped  in 
the  smoke  of  tobacco,  &c.  In  general,  however, 
a  strict  attention  to  physical  education  cannot  be 
insisted  upon  too  much  among  civilized  nations. 
During  the  periods  of  life,  from  birth  to  the  state 
of  full  growth,  a  third  kind  of  laws  is  to  be  kept 
in  view,  and  these  shall  be  considered  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages. 


84  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ON    THE    LAWS    OF    EXERCISE. 

These  laws  embrace  what  is  called  Education 
in  a  more  limited  sense,  but  in  this  respect  many 
errors  are  caused  by  the  true  meaning  of  the  word 
Exercise  not  being  sufficiently  understood.  I  em- 
ploy this  expression  as  synonymous  with  putting 
into  action,  and  distinguish  Exercise  from  Habit ; 
the  latter  being  the  result  of  the  former. 


Habit. 

Habit  has  two  significations  :  it  sometimes  indi- 
cates the  result  of  diminished  activity,  and  at 
other  times  a  greater  facility  of  acting.  A  power 
/'being  too  active,  becomes  fatigued,  diminishes, 
and  is  finally  exhausted.  Moreover,  all  natural 
powers  become  accustomed  to  external  impres- 
sions, and  the  former  become  the  less  affected  the 
longer  the  latter  are  applied.  The  mimosa  sensi- 
tiva,  when  shaken  for  a  certain  time,  ceases  to  fold 
its  leaves.  In  the  same  way,  each  sort  of  impres- 
sion on  the  organization  loses  its  effect  by  frequent 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  85 

repetition.  Even  noxious  impressions,  when  re- 
peated, are  less  felt  than  they  were  at  first.  In  this 
sense  Mithridates  accustomed  his  stomach  and 
bowels  to  poisonous  substances.  The  attendants 
and  nurses  of  patients  become  in  a  certain  degree 
insensible  to  contagious  diseases  in  hospitals.  The 
mind  itself  shows  less  energy  at  each  repetition  of 
the  same  functions.  It  becomes  accustomed  even 
to  misfortune  and  painful  situations.  Time  is  a 
great  remedy  of  many  evils. 

Organized  beings  adapt  themselves  in  a  surpris- 
ing degree  to  external  impressions,  and  a  change 
of  place  and  various  circumstances  is  frequently 
less  advantageous  than  might  have  been  expected. 
Prisoners,  who  have  been  confined  for  many  years 
to  dungeons,  or  uawholesome  habitations,  fall  sick 
when  they  obtain  their  liberty.  Many  morbid, 
but  accustomed  affections,  such  as  old  sores  and 
exudations,  &c.  are  to  be  removed  with  the  great- 
est precaution,  and  sometimes  to  be  left  untouched. 
Body  and  mind  successively  take  a  turn  which  can 
be  changed  solely  by  degrees. 

All  changes  which  nature  produces  are  succes- 
sive, and  art  ought  to  imitate  her  proceedings.  It 
is  the  same  in  dietetic  rules,  and  in  every  manner 
of  feeling  and  thinking.  Drunkards  cannot  leave 
off  their  bad  habits  suddenly  without  injuring  their 
health.     Those  who  are  near  starving  from  inani 

tion,   will   perish   if  too    much    nourishment    be 
9 


86  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

given  ;  and  too  much  light  dazzles  those  who 
have  lived  long  in  darkness.  The  bad  effects  of 
great  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature  on  in- 
animate bodies,  such  as  glass,  or  on  plants,  an- 
imals, and  man,  are  generally  known.  Those 
who  are  accustomed  to  certain  mental  occupa- 
tions, feel  great  reluctance  to  give  them  up.  In 
the  same  way,  great  and  sadden  changes  of  politi- 
cal, moral,  and  religious  opinions,  are. not  borne 
with  indifference.  Habit  is  a  second  nature,  phy- 
sically and  morally  speaking. 

The  living  generation,  if  not  prepared  for  it, 
generally  rejects  every  reform.  It  is  only  in 
process  of  time  that  the  adherents  to  any  new  doc- 
trine become  numerous  ;  and  any  doctrine,  though 
false,  when  once  admitted,  will  be  replaced  by 
another  and  a  better  only  by  degrees.  Yet  it  is 
natural  that  the  more  agreeable  a  doctrine  is,  the 
sooner  it  will  gain  ground,  and  that  a  precept 
which  commands  resignation  will  be  submitted  to, 
in  proportion  to  the  reward  it  promises.  Chris- 
tianity assigns  eternal  happiness  as  the  reward  for 
temporal  conflicts  ;  and  it  was  adopted  by  fisher- 
men and  the  poor  sooner  than  by  the  rich. 

The  law  of  modifying  mankind,  or  of  produc- 
ing changes  is  seldom  understood  by  reformers. 
They  are  commonly  too  hasty  ;  though,  at  all 
times,  experience  has  shown  the  danger  and  harm 
of  such  a  proceeding.     When  changes  are  to  be 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  91 

made,  let  them  be  gradual  :  the  greater  the  alter- 
ations you  wish  for  are,  the  slower  must  be  your 
method  of  proceeding  ;  keeping,  however,  con- 
stantly the  aim  in  view.  The  precipitancy  of 
coninion  reformers  can  be  excused  only  by  their 
ignorance  of  human  nature,  and  by  their  errone- 
ous opinion,  that  it  is  sufficient  to  point  out 
errors,  and  to  propose  principles,  in  order  to  per- 
fect man  without  considering  that  he  must  by  de- 
grees be  prepared  for,  and  accustomed  to  them. 

The  facility  of  accommodating  man  to  new  im- 
pressions greatly  depends  on  age  ;  it  succeeds  best 
during  the  period  of  growth,  whilst  in  latter  years 
we  are  less  susceptible  of  changes.  It  is  therefore 
not  astonishing,  that  all  new  doctrines  have  been 
received  and  propagated  by  youth  and  new  gene- 
rations. 

The  law  of  accommodation,  however  great, 
never  annihilates  the  general  laws  of  life.  It  is 
even  subordinate  to  them,  and  cannot  prevent  the 
successive  changes  of  age.  Again,  every  individ- 
ual being  born  with  a  different  constitution,  and 
with  different  dispositions,  is  not  equally  capable 
of  accommodating  himself  to  circumstances,  and 
hence  each  will  present  some  modification,  though 
the  external  influences  are  the  same.  This  is  the 
case  in  the  automatic  and  animal  functions.  Not- 
withstanding these  restrictions,  the  law  of  accom- 
modation is  incalculably  great  in  the  education 
both  of  individuals  and  of  nations. 


88  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

The  second  meaning"  of  Habit  is  an  increased 
facility  of  acting  in  a  certain  manner.  In  this  ac- 
ceptation of  the  word,  it  is  still  more  interesting 
to  education  than  in  the  former,  and  deserves  a 
detailed  elucidation. 


^  Exercise, 

I  have  already  mentioned  that  1  employ  the 
word  exercise  as  synonymous  with  putting  into 
action.  Now  the  first  law  of  this  kind  is,  that  ex- 
ercise strengthens  powers.  This  principle  is  quite 
general  throughout  nature,  and  extends  even  to  in- 
animate bodies.  Musical  instruments  being  play- 
ed on  by  masters  in  the  art,  improve.  The  pow- 
er of  a  magnet  to  support  weight  may  be  increas- 
ed, by  gradually  appending  to  it  more.  Every 
power,  both  in  automatic  and  animal  life,  may  be 
exercised,  and  thereby  gains  in  activity.  There 
is  something  analogous  even  in  the  diseased  state. 
Each  organic  part,  having  once  been  affected  by  any 
disorder,  is  liable  to  relapses  ;  in  the  same  way  as, 
according  to  the  first  meaning  of  habit,  by  repeti- 
tion and  continuation  many  diseases  are  exhausted 

The  digestive  organs  may  not  only  be  accus- 
tomed to  various  aliments,  but  they  become  also 
more  active  by  being  satisfied.  In  persons  who 
spit  out  the  saliva,  the  glands  secrete  more  abund- 
antly.    All  muscles  which  are  exercised  increase 


LAWS    OP    EXERCISE.  '■89 

in  strength.  Smiths,  and  those  who  use  their 
arms,  acquire  more  power  than  those  who  sel- 
dom employ  them.  Bodily  exercise  in  general 
strengthens  ;  and  a  sedentary  life  weakens  the  con- 
stitution. 

The  influence  of  exercise  on  the  functions  of 
the  five  senses,  is  generally  known  and  admitted. 
The  sense  of  feeHng  often  acquires  a  very  high 
degree  of  perfection  in  persons  who  are  blind. 
In  the  first  vol.  of  Phrenology,  speaking  of  the 
Generalities  of  the  external  senses,  I  have  quoted 
many  examples  which  prove,  that  they  become 
more  active  by  practice. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  internal  faculties  inani 
fested  by  means  of  the  different  parts  of  the  brain. 
f  Each  mental  power,  if  it  be  sufficiently  cultivated, 
grows    more   energetic,   whilst,   if   neglected,   it 
shows  less  activity. 

In  this  chapter  on  the  Laws  of  Exercise,  I  take 
for  granted,  that  all  dispositions  are  innate  and  dis- 
covered. I  refer  for  the  details  of  this  impor- 
tant proposition  to  the  first  vol.  of  Phrenology. 
Hitherto  philosophers  have  admitted  a  few  general 
powers,  and  have  derived  from  them  all  particu- 
lar manifestations.  The  greater  number  of  them 
consider  the  intellect  as  the  cause  of  the  feelings. 
Accordingly,  they  confine  education  to  the  Un- 
derstanding, and  do  not  think  of  cultivating  the 


90  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

Feelings  themselves.  This,  however,  is  a  great 
error,  and  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  specify 
the  primitive  powers  of  the  Mind ;  and  then,  as 
they  exist  independently  of  each  other,  every  one 
must  be  exercised  for  itself.  The  legs  or  arms 
will  not  be  strengthened  by  reading  treatises  on 
nmsciilar  motion.  The  digestive  organs  will  not 
act  with  more  energy  in  those  who  know  all  the 
theories  which  have  prevailed  on  digestion,  and 
who  are  even  able  to  explain  the  causes  of  hun- 
ger and  thirst.  Let  such  persons  have  but  little 
to  eat  and  to  drink,  and  give  to  others  who  have 
never  heard  of  any  theory  of  alimentation,  whole- 
some food  in  abundant  quantity,  and  every  intel- 
ligent reader  will  perceive  whose  appetite  and 
digestive  functions  will  be  exercised  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Let  any  one  study  the  principles  of  optics  mere- 
ly in  books  and  in  descriptions  ;  let  him  learn  by 
heart  all  the  theories  of  colors,  but  let  him  never 
p  )e  any  color,  nor  feel  their  harmony.  He  may, 
like  a  blind  man,  recollect  all  the  expressions  used 
in  painting,  but  without  practical  instruction  his 
faculty  of  coloring  will  not  improve. 

Who  will  pretend  to  cultivate  the  musical  talent 
only  by  reading  discourses  about  the  principles  of 
melody  and  harmony  ?  Is  it  not  necessary  for 
this  purpose  to  perform  tunes,  or  to  hear  them 
performed  by  others,  either  in  singing  or  in  play- 
ing* on  a  musical  instrument  ? 


LAWS    OP    EXERCISE.  Si 

It  is  the  same  with  all  intellectual  faculties. 
Each  must  be  exercised  or  put  into  action  for  it- 
self. Thus,  to  cultivate  the  power  of  Numeration, 
the  numbers  must  be  shown  in  real  objects.  To 
exercise  the  power  of  Locality,  it  is  not  enough  to 
know  the  names  of  each  town,  river,  sea,  &c.  but 
their  respective  situations  must  be  acquired. 
Some  children  easily  recollect  names  and  geogra- 
phical descriptions  by  heart,  but  feel  great  diffi- 
culty in  learning  local  situations  ;  while  others 
present  to  themselves,  in  their  own  minds,  an  ex- 
act image  of  localities,  the  names  of  which  they 
have  forgotten.  When  children  are  obliged  to 
trace  maps,  it  is  not  always  those  who  know  the 
localities  best  that  have  the  greatest  power  of  tra- 
cing them  on  paper.  The  fundamental  faculties 
must  be  separa,ted  in  every  study.  In  geography, 
for  instance,  a  perfect  knowledge  requires  the  ex- 
ercise of  Individuality,  of  Form,  Size,  Locality, 
and  Language.  In  order  to  draw  maps,  Con- 
structiveness  is  required  in  addition.  The  latter 
power  will  be  assisted  by  Order  and  Numeration. 

The  intellectual  faculties  of  man  have  improved 
less  by  education  than  they  might  have  done,  in 
consequence  of  two  reasons,  first,  of  the  primitive 
powers  of  the  understanding  not  being  known  ; 
and  second,  of  the  difference  between  sensations 
and  perceptions  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  artificial 
signs,  either  sounds  or  figures,  which  express  them, 
on  the  other,  not  being  attended  to. 


9Z  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

To  proceed  as  if  artificial  signs  could  produce 
sensations  and  perceptions,  while  they  can  only- 
call  those  ideas  into  recollection  which  have  pre- 
existed in  the  mind,  does  incalculahle  harm.  The 
old  system  of  education  however,  is  conducted  in 
this  faulty  manner.  Children  learn  and  repeat 
words  without  meaning,  like  parrots.  But  it 
(k  ight  to  be  admitted  as  a  general  principle,  in 
communicating  every  kind  of  positive  knowledge 
of  the  external  world,  that,  first,  sensations  and 
perceptions  must  be  excited,  and  these  then  de- 
noted by  particular  signs.  In  that  way  only  we 
shall  avoid  the  great  mistake  to  which  we  are  ac- 
customed from  infancy,  viz.  of  pronouncing  words 
without  knowing  their  signification. 

The  vocal  or  written  signs  are  to  be  used  only 
as  means  of  communication,  of  recollection  and 
tradition  ;  but  they  cannot  be  considered  as  the 
cause  of  any  idea  or  sensation.  On  the  other 
hand,  each  intellectual  faculty  must  be  exercised 
by  practical  application,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
sense  of  hearing  is  exercised  by  hearing,  that  of 
smelling  by  sm.elling,  that  of  sight  by  seeing. 

With  respect  to  the  Feelings,  education  is  still 
more  defective.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  it 
is  more  difficult  to  cultivate  the  propensities  and 
sentiments  than  the  intellectual  powers.  It  is 
even  said  that  the  feelings  cannot  be  taught.  This 
proposition,  however,  is  not  clearly  stated.     The 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  93 

feelings  cannot  be  taught,  if  by  this  proposition  we 
mean,  that  they  may  be  given  by  education  ;  in 
this  sense  also  understanding  cannot  be  communi- 
cated. Both  intellect  and  feelings  are  innate  or 
given  by  the  Creator,  but  the  latter  may  be  exer- 
cised in  the  same  manner  as  the  intellect,  not  by 
the  action  of  the  faculty  of  language,  or  by  learn- 
ing signs,  or  by  exercising  the  verbal  memory,  but 
by  putting  the  feelings  themselves  into  action.  I 
even  think  that  it  is  much  easier  to  exercise  the 
feelings  than  the  intellectual  powers. 

It  cannot  be  too  frequently  repeated,  that  the 
Feelings  do  not  result  from  intellect,  any  more 
than  intellect  is  the  result  of  the  feelings.  No  one 
is  benevolent,  just,  timid,  courageous,  haughty,  or 
affectionate,  in  proportion  to  his  understanding, 
nor  has  he  penetration  on  account  of  his  feelings. 
Moreover,  each  affective,  as  well  as  each  intel- 
lectual faculty,  must,  and  may  be  exercised  for 
itself.  Man  learns  to  be  courageous,  circumspect, 
ambitious,  just,  or  benevolent,  as  he  learns  to 
sing,  to  calculate,  to  measure,  to  speak,  and  to  re- 
flect. When  often  exposed  to  danger,  he  learns  to 
meet  death  without  fear.  By  habit  he  becomes 
indifferent  to  destruction.  The  heart,  as  the  Ch 
nese  proverb  states,  goes  farther  than  understan 
ing. 

Thus,  bring  men  into  favorable  situations,  cal- 
culated to  call  forv'i  their  feeling  -,  and  these  will 


94  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

be  strengthened.  In  order  to  cultivate  benevo- 
lence, one  should  not  frequent  only  the  society  of 
rich  and  opulent  persons,  and  learn  by  heart  de- 
scriptions of  charity  ;  he  must  experience  misery 
himself,  and  contemplate  the  painful  situations  of 
others.  There  are  more  poor  willing  to  give 
charity  from  their  necessity,  than  rich  from  their 
superfluity.  If  all  our  whims  and  fancies  have 
generally  been  satisfied,  the  feelings  of  conscien- 
tiousness and  benevolence  towards  others  are  less 
excited,  than  if  our  wishes  have  been  contradicted 
and  reformed.  For  the  same  reason  moral  feel- 
ings will  not  improve  by  frequenting  places  of  de- 
bauchery. 

The  principle  in  question  explains  the  ancient 
proverb ;  verba  movent,  exempla  trahunt,  and  also 
the  great  influence  of  bad  or  good  company.  So- 
ciety, however,  cannot  be,  as  it  is  often  consider- 
ed, the  cause  of  any  faculty ;  it  presents  only  an 
opportunity  to  the  innate  powers,  to  act,  or  excites 
them  to  do  so. 

The  knowledge  of  the  means  of  exciting  tlie 
powers  is  very  important,  but  not  better  under- 
stood than  the  fundamental  powers  themselves. 
It  is  time  to  abandon  the  immense  error,  that 
words  and  precepts  are  suflicient  to  call  internal 
feelings  and  intellectual  faculties  into  active  exer- 
cise Gospel-preaching  is  infinite,  but  many  of 
those  wno  deliver  exquisite  sermons  are  too  often 


LAWS    or    EXERCISE.  95 

obliged  to  add  :  Do  what  I  say,  and  not  what  I 
do.  Now,  if  they  themselves  show  no  faith  by 
their  works,  how  can  they  expect  others  to  do 
so  ?  Let  education  be  practical,  and  the  means  of 
excitement  adequate  to  the  innate  dispositions. 
Bold  children  will  reap  advantage  from  being- 
brought  up  alone,  but  timid  ones  must  be  early 
accustomed  to  the  society  of  strangers.  Obstinacy 
will  increase  by  unseasonable  vexations,  while  just 
and  quiet  resistance  or  mild  treatment  may  sup- 
press it.  The  feelings  are  rather  moved  by  a 
dramatic  representation  than  by  a  monotonous 
sermon.  The  sight  of  a  person  wounded,  or  in 
danger,  makes  a  greater  impression  on  the  mind, 
than  reading  that  thousands  have  been  killed  in  a 
battle.  Natural  language,  in  general,  has  more 
effect  on  the  feelings  than  artificial  signs.  We  are, 
for  instance,  more  likely  to  smile  or  laugh  on  look- 
ing at  a  gay  face,  than  on  hearing  the  word  gaiety 
mentioned. 

The  effect  of  external  impressions  on  internal 
faculties  is  proportionate  to  the  assistance  which 
the  external  senses  give  to  the  internal  faculties. 
I  refer  particularly  to  what  I  said  of  the  mediate 
functions  of  the  external  senses,  in  vol.  I.  of 
Phrenology.  In  that  way,  the  influence  of  religious 
ceremonies  on  common  people,  is  easily  explained, 
and  ought  not  to  be  overlooked.  Music,  and 
representations  of  objects  and  facts  in  paintings 
and  sculpture,  may  excite  various  kinds  of  feel- 


96  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

ings,  the  inferior  as  well  as  the  superior.— It  is 
true,  that  these  means  rnay  be  and  have  been 
abused  ;  but  I  think  it  wrong  on  that  account  to 
reject  them  altogether.  Let  the  impressions  on 
the  senses  be  adapted  to  the  feelings  we  wish  to 
excite,  and  these  will  be  exercised.  Church 
music  certainly  should  be  different  from  that  of 
the  ball-room,  but  music  itself  ought  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  considered  as  useless  in  the  inspiring 
religious  feelings.  By  means  of  music,  the  sol- 
dier may  be  incited  to  fight,  and  the  Christian  to 
adore  his  Creator.  The  great  point  is,  not  to 
confound  the  means  with  the  aim,  and  not  to  con- 
sider the  first  as  the  second.  Religious  cere- 
monies are  nothing  but  means  to  become  morally 
good  ;  and  if  they  do  not  tend  to  that  purpose, 
they  lead  us  into  error.  The  practice  of  them 
will  not  improve  the  moral  conduct  any  more 
than  learning  the  commandments  by  heart  will  do. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  effect  of  music  is  different 
in  ditTerent  individuals ;  but  it  is  a  great  instance 
of  ignorant  bigotry  and  intolerance  in  persons  to 
exclaim  against  its  use  in  religion,  because  they 
themselves  are  unfortunately  insensible  to  its 
charms. 

I  shall  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  artificial  signs : 
they  are  oral,  viz.  pronounced,  or  written  and 
printed.  We  commence  with  learning  the  oral 
or  vocal  signs.  Their  number  increases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  activity  of  the  innate  faculties  of 


LAWS    OP    EXERCISE.  97 

the  body  and  mind,  but  children  ought  not  to  be 
taught  to  pronounce  any  word,  without  learning 
at  the  same  time  to  understand  it. 

As  every  family  has  not  the  means  of  giving 
sufficient  education  to  their  children  at  home,  they 
send  them  to  schools  or  colleges,  to  be  instructed. 
Public  institutions,  in  consequence,  ought  to  be 
established,  with  a  view  to  give  notions  first,  and 
signs  afterwards,  in  proportion  to  the  notions  ac- 
quired. It  is  evident,  that  the  objects  to  be  taught 
must  vary,  according  to  the  situations  of  the 
scholars,  in  future  life,  whether  they  be  destined 
for  agriculture,  commerce,  or  any  of  the  learned 
professions.  Articles  which  compose  the  first 
necessaries  of  life,  the  most  common  objects  and 
events,  Forms,  Measures,  Weights,  Colors,  Coins, 
used  in  the  country,  the  general  division  of  beings 
into  minerals,  vegetables,  and  animals,  the  great 
and  common  phenomena  of  nature,  &c.  may  be 
taught  every  where.  Those  notions  which  are 
particularly  interesting  to  country  people,  such  as 
the  rearing  of  cattle,  or  cultivating  fruit-trees  and 
other  plants,  &c.  may  be  given  where  necessary. 
Every  kind  of  information  given  should  be  prac- 
tical and  useful.  Whatever  is  spoken  of,  should 
be  shown  in  nature,  since  it  is  useless  to  speak  of 
things  which  children  have  neither  seen,  heard, 
felt,  tasted,  nor  smelt.  They  cannot  know  any 
more  of  them  than   those  who   are  born  blind  do 

of  colors.     The  feelings  also  ought  to  be  exercised 
10 


98  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

as  far  as  they  are  necessary  ;  but  it  is  not  enough 
to  speak  of  Charity  to  teach  it  ;  teachers  must  ex- 
cite that  feeling  by  their  own  example  ;  and  chil- 
dren must  be  accustomed  to  practise  that  virtue. 

In  the  practical  way,  an  immense  number  of 
useful  notions  might  be  given  to  children  in  a 
short  space  of  time.  Their  intellect  shows  a 
great  tendency  to  acquire  positive  knowledge, 
while  teachers,  in  direct  opf>osition  to  nature, 
very  absurdly  torment  them  with  words  without 
meaning,  or  with  things  they  cannot  understand. 
Spelling  and  reading  seem  the  only  points  which 
teachers  mind,  hence  the  great  number  of 
school-books  of  that  description.  Teachers  how- 
ever, should  be  most  anxious  about  children  learn- 
ing to  think  and  to  understand  what  they  say  and 
read,  instead  of  repeating,  like  parrots,  phrases 
and  sentences.  The  school-books  ought  to  be 
composed  in  reference  to  ideas  to  be  communica- 
ted to  the  young  mind  ;  -whatever  is  nnintelli- 
ble  or  cannot  be  explained,  is  not  only  useless  but 
accustoms  the  reader  to  use  signs,  without  mean- 
ings, and  to  read  without  thinking. 

As  in  teaching  languages  or  vocal  signs,  it  is 
essential  to  combine  notions  with  words,  and  to 
show  that  the  latter  are  merely  signs,  so,  in 
teaching  words,  the  whole  grammar  of  the  mo 
ther-language  might  be  taught.  Children  will  un- 
derstand the  meaning  of  substances,  or  that  each 
being  has  a  name  as  well  as  each  substance,  eacli 


tAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  W 

form,  dimension,  color,  &c.  They  may  learn,  at 
the  same  time,  the  qualities  of  objects,  and  words 
which  express  them,  or  the  adjectives.  Their  at- 
tention may  also  be  directed  to  the  different  de- 
grees of  the  adjectives.  In  proportion  as  they 
become  acquainted  with  phenomena,  or  facts,  the 
verbs  may  be  explained.  The  different  kinds  of 
notions,  too,  may  be  pointed  out,  and  children  may 
thus  become  acquainted  with  the  primitive  powers 
of  man,  without  any  peculiar  study. 

Those  who  are  advanced  in  the  acquirement  of 
notions,  and  of  words  or  spoken  signs,  may.  begin 
to  learn  written  and  printed  ones.  They  will 
then  compare  the  hitter  signs  with  the  former,  or 
wiih  i\\e  sounds  of  which  they  have  already  ac- 
quired some  knowledge.  Among  the  printed  and 
written  signs,  first,  are  to  be  learned  those  which 
are  employed  to  express  constantly  the  same 
sounds  ;  in  the  German  language,  for  instance,  a, 
o,  u,  6,  dyg,  /,  m,  n,  p,  *,  tc,  ^c.  ;  then  the  signs 
which  are  different,  but  express  the  same  sounds  : 
as,  in  the  German,  x  and  cks  ;— /and  v  ; — i  and 
y  ;— z  and  tz: — finally,  the  signs  which  designate 
different  sounds,  such  as  in  the  German  c,  e,  /i,  ^c. 
When  the  printed  and  written  signs  of  single  sounds 
are  known,  then  those  of  compound  ones  may  next 
be  taught. 

To  assist  the  power  of  language,  the  faculties 
of  Individuality  and  Form  are  usually  emoloyed 


100  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

at  the  same  time.  The  figures  of  animals  are 
marked  under  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  ;  an  Ape, 
for  instance  is  placed  under  A  ;  a  Bat  under  B  ; 
a  Cat  under  C,  &c.  ;  yet  no  animal  should  be 
named  that  is  not  perfectly  known  to  the  children 
who  learn  the  signs.  It  would  be  desirable,  how- 
ever, to  exhibit  the  animal  itself,  where  it  is  not 
familiarly  known. 

In  this  proceeding  the  fundamental  powers  of 
language  and  configuration  are  obliged  to  learn 
each  two  impressions  :  two  forms  and  two  names, 
for  instance,  A  and  Ape,  C  and  Cat,  &c.  I  there- 
fore would  advise  to  teach  only  the  written  or 
printed  signs,  without  bringing  them  in  connec- 
tion with  objects  ;  but  I  would,  at  the  same  time, 
when  they  learn  the  printed  signs,  exercise  their 
fingers  in  copying  the  letters  of  the  signs,  or  what 
is  the  same  thing,  in  writing  them  in  sand,  as  is 
the  practice  in  the  schools  of  mutual  instruction. 
The  advantage  of  the  other  method  is  supported 
on  the  eflfect  of  association.  But  those  who  are 
taught  in  this  way,  and  have  the  power  of  confi- 
guration very  active,  may  be  impeded  in  reading, 
because  they  attach  to  each  letter  the  object  they 
have  learnt  in  its  connection  ;  and  in  order  to  read 
fluently,  they  must  unlearn  what  they  were  obliged 
to  learn  at  the  beginning. 

It  is  clear  that  the  printed  and  written  signs  or 
letters  in  any  language,  ought  to  be  formed  in  the 


LAWS    OP    EXERCISE.  101 

same  manner.  If  both  sorts  of  signs  are  different, 
as  in  the  German  language,  a  useless  difficulty  is 
created. 

The  printed  and  written  signs  should  be  taught 
in  the  same  order  as  the  sounds  are  communicated, 
and  a  sign  should  never  be  taught  without  indi- 
cating the  idea  that  is  expressed  by  it.  We  ought 
to  begin  with  learning  the  single  letters  ;  then  to 
go  to  monosyllables,  and  by  degrees  to  polysylla- 
bles ;  and  these  should  be  pronounced  without 
spelling  and  compared  with  the  printed  and  writ- 
ten signs.  Ale,  Ape,  Bed,  Bank,  Cat,  Cold,  &c. 
— Apple,  Bacon,  Body,  Bitter,  &c. — Appetite,  Can- 
dle-stick, Candle-holder,  &c. 

As  we  are  accustomed  from  infancy  to  connect 
sounds  with  the  printed  and  written  characters 
which  represent  them,  we  never  see  the  latter 
without  repeating  at  the  same  time  the  former. 
Did  we  never  learn  sounds,  without  acquiring  at 
the  same  time  a  positive  knowledge  of  the  things 
they  express,  we  should  always  think  of  the  re- 
lated notions  when  we  heard  or  saw  the  signs,  and 
then  learning  would  be  much  more  agreeable, 
easy,  and  profitable. 

The  same  proceeding  is  necessary  with  respect 
to  both  the  intellectual  and  affective  faculties.     As 
we  ought  to  perceive   the   external  objects  indi- 
cated, before  we  learn  the  signs  of  them,   either 
10* 


102  EDUCATION    OF   MAN. 

vocal,  printed  or  written,  so  we  ought  to  expe- 
rience the  feelings  first,  before  we  learn  the  words 
by  which  they  are  expressed.  Hunger  and  Thirst, 
Warmth,  Cold,  Anger,  Fear,  and  all  other  emo- 
tions must  be  felt  before  their  signs  can  be  fully 
understood.  The  natural  language  alone  is 
proper  to  communicate  the  meaning  of  expressions 
which  denote  the  affective  powers  of  the  mind. 
The  natural  language  deserves  the  particular  atten- 
tion in  the  cultivation  of  the  affective  powers.  It 
excties  them  much  more  than  the  artificial  signs 
can.  If  a  teacher  should  instruct  girls  about  po- 
lite manners,  whilst  he  himself  is  awkward  and 
sets  before  them  his  legs  stretched  out  over  a 
chair,  the  theoretical  lessons  will  be  of  less  influ- 
ence than  the  example  which  strikes  the  eyes.  If 
another  speak  to  boys  of  peaceableness  and  for- 
bearance with  an  abrupt  and  commanding  tone  of 
voice  and  with  sharp  haughty  features,  he  puts 
rather  combativeness  and  self-esteem  than  benevo- 
lence and  reverence  into  action.  It  is  a  rule  to 
speak  the  natural  language  of  any  feeling,  you 
wish  to  inspire  or  to  excite,  and  without  doing  so, 
the  artificial  signs  are  of  little  consequence.  You 
may  be  silent  and  dumb,  and  yet  distinctly  speak 
to  the  feelings  by  natural  signs.  If  education  be 
conducted  in  this  way,  moral  and  religious  princi- 
ples will  produce  more  effect  on  mankind  than 
they  have  done  hitherto.  Then  the  moral  facul- 
ties will  be  called  into  action,  and  our  efforts  to 
cultivate  the  mind  will  not  be  limited  to  the  pow- 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  103 

er  of  language  only,  viz.  to  that  faculty  which 
learns  by  heart  artificial  signs. 

Ignorance  of  the  fundamental  powers  of  thd 
mind,  and  of  the  means  of  exercising  them,  may 
be  observed  in  all  the  institutions  of  society,  and 
in  all  branches  of  mental  education.  Classes  for 
younger  children  and  whole  universities  are  con- 
ducted according  to  erroneous  suppositions.  The 
greater  number  of  teachers  agree  that  the  reason- 
ing power  ought  to  be  exercised  in  every  indi- 
didual;  but  what  shall  be  done  to  accomplish  that 
end  ?  Perhaps  we  see  one  man  of  great  depth  of 
mind  who  is  eminent  as  a  mathematician :  the  in- 
ference is  immediately  drawn,  that  every  child 
ought  to  study  mathematics,  in  order  to  acquire 
great  reflecting  powers  ;  and  not  even  the  theo- 
logian is  to  be  excepted,  as  if  mathematical  and 
moral  reasoning  were  founded  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples 

Another  person  also  endowed  with  great  rea- 
sonmg  powers  is  perhaps  a  great  philologist,  and 
particularly  an  excellent  Greek  and  Latin  scholar  : 
therefore,  every  one  is  compelled  to  learn  Latin 
and  Greek,  with  the  view  of  giving  him  a  power- 
ful mind,  as  if  learning  words  and  phrases  were 
the  same  as  acquiring  sensations  and  perceptions 
of  all  kinds,  and  reasoning  on  them.  HappilyX 
the  time  of  sophistry  is  past,  and  positive  know-  J 
ledge  is  now  esteemed.     Experience  shows,  that 


104  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

philology  and  mathematics  do  not  improve  arte 
and  sciences,  nor  the  moral  character  of  man. 

It  is  replied,  that  the  great  mathematician  and 
the  great  linguist,  excel  by  their  philosophical 
minds.  This  is  certain  ;  but  they  did  not  become 
good  reasoners,  one  by  studying  mathematics,  and 
the  other  by  learning  Latin  and  Greek.  There 
are  great  philosophers  who  cannot  become  great 
mathematicians,  nor  great  linguists.  It  is  true 
that  the  mind  must  be  drilled  and  accustomed  to 
reflect ;  but  I  deny  that  this  can  be  done  only  in 
Latin  or  Greek,  or  in  the  study  of  mathematics. 
The  reflective  powers  of  man  are  fundamental, 
and  may  be  employed  in  prosecuting  any  branch 
of  knowledge,  in  the  study  of  natural  history, 
zoology,  geology,  chemistry,  phrenology,  &c.  ; 
and  whoever  excels  in  any  line  by  reasoning,  must 
possess  them  in  a  higher  degree ;  but  they  are  by 
no  means  the  exclusive  attribute  of  mathemati- 
cians or  philologists.  They  may  be  applied  to 
any  kind  of  notions  and  always  with  most  advan- 
tage to  the  perceptive  powers  of  which  are  most 
active.  Now  if  an  individual  have  calculation  or 
language  small,  he  cannot  acquire  a  great  stock  of 
notions  of  that  mind,  and  his  reasoning  powers 
will  rather  be  impeded  by  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics or  the  classics.  It  certainly  would  be  as- 
tonishing, if  some  talented  individuals  could  not 
excel  in  various  kinds  of  knowledge  and  be  at  the 
same  time  good  ol£^ssical  scholars.     The  plurality 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  105 

of  the  mental  powers  and  their  combinations  ought 
to  be  better  understood,  and  mental  discipline 
which  I  allow  to  be  necessary,  may  be  arrived  at 
by  cultivating  various  kinds  of  knowledge,  and  in 
combining  them  with  reflection. 

In  the  same  way,  as  each  faculty  exists  in  itself, 
and  may  be  combined  with  others,  so  each  may 
be  exercised  alone  or  in  connection  with  others. 
We  may  exercise  the  faculty  of  Form,  Size,  or 
any  other,  without  learning  signs  to  denote  our 
ideas ;  and  we  may  learn  signs  by  heart,  without 
understanding  their  significations;  or  Language 
may  also  be  exercised  at  the  same  time  with  other 
faculties.  Yet  it  is  useful  to  put  into  simultane 
ous,  or  closely  successive  action,  all  the  facul 
ties  which  have  a  mutual  influence  on  each  other. 
In  this  way  they  excite  each  other  mutually. 
This  rule  explains  the  whole  doctrine  of  Mnemo- 
nics ;  that  is,  the  activity  of  one  power  excites 
that  of  one  or  several  others.  In  the  next  chapter, 
this  proposition  will  be  more  fully  detailed. 
Here,  my  principal  object  is  to  fix  the  attention  of 
teachers  upon  the  great  fault  of  confounding  to- 
gether signs  and  ideas,  or  of  thinking  that  mere 
words  can  produce  notions. 

School  education  after  the  monkish  and  old 
fashioned  system,  begins  with  teaching  printed 
and  written  signs,  without  explaining  their  signi- 
fications, and  ev^n  the  instruction  we  commonly 


106  EDUCATION   OF   MAN. 

receive  in  colleges,  is  more  a  communication  of 
fiigns  than  ideas.  Youth  are  admired  and  reward- 
ed in  proportion  as  they  know  signs.  How  glo- 
rious is  it  for  a  boy  to  know  how  to  communicate 
the  same  idea  in  Greek,  Latin,  perhaps  in  Hebrew, 
or  in  many  modern  languages ! 

Some  speak  of  the  delight  they  experience  from 
reading  the  classics.  This  may  be  with  those 
who  have  great  facility  of  learning  languages. 
But  it  is  certain  that,  generally  speaking,  the 
study  of  the  dead  languages  is  extremely  tedious 
for  the  greater  number  of  pupils.  Lord  Byron 
stated  it  in  reference  to  himself.  I  am  convinced, 
that  thereby  many  children  become  unwilling  to 
learn  things  to  which  they  would  have  attended 
with  pleasure,  had  they  been  taught  them  in  their 
own  language  in  a  practical  way.  Many  others 
are  drilled  by  indefatigable  pains  to  become  clas- 
sical scliolars,  and  nevertheless  fail  to  distinguish 
themselves.  Some  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholars, 
when  they  come  to  practical  business,  are  left  be-^ 
hind  by  fellow  students,  who  at  school  were  un^ 
dervalued.  The  quantity  of  Latin  words  crammed 
into  the  heads  of  the  students,  does  not  give 
them  the  primitive  power  of  reflection,  nor  does 
it  serve  to  cultivate  attention  to  practical  life. 
On  the  contrary,  that  constrained  method  of 
studying,  renders  their  conceptions  slow  and  ia« 
dolent. 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  107 

It  i&  also  said  that  those  who  know  Latin  and 
Greek  generally  express  themselves  with  more 
clearness  than  those  who  do  not  receive  a  liberal 
education.  It  is  indeed  natural  that  those  who 
cultivate  their  mental  powers,  write  with  more 
clearness  than  the  uncultivated  individual.  The 
mental  cultivation,  however,  may  take  place  in  the 
mother  tongue  as  well  as  in  Latin  or  Greek. 
Yet  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  languages,  further  is 
declared  to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  modern.  I 
allow  this  to  be  the  case,  but  I  do  not  find  that 
the  English  style  is  improved  by  learning  Greek. 
It  is  known,  that  literal  translations  are  miserably 
bad,  and  yet  young  scholars  are  taught  to  trans- 
late, word  for  word,  faithful  to  their  dictionaries. 
Hence  those  who  do  not  make  a  peculiar  study  of 
their  own  language,  will  not  improve  in  it  by 
learning,  in  this  manner,  Greek  and  Latin.  Is  it 
not  a  pity  to  hear,  what  I  have  been  told  by  the 
managers  of  one  of  the  first  institutions  of  Ireland, 
that  it  was  easier  to  find  ten  teachers  for  Latin  and 
Greek,  than  one  for  the  English  language,  though 
they  proposed  double  the  salary  to  the  latter  ? 
Who  can  assure  us  that  the  Greek  orators  acquired 
their  superiority  by  their  acquaintance  with  for- 
eign languages  ;  or  is  it  not  obvious,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  they  learned  ideas  and  expressed  them 
in  their  mother  tongue  ^ 

It  is  farther  said,  that  it  is  interesting  to  know 
Latin  and  Greek,  in  order  to  understand  the  ety- 


108 


EDUCATION    OP   MAN.  / 


molog-y  of  modern  languages.  This  is  true,  but, 
with  this  view,  the  English  ought  to  study  also 
the  Gorman,  Dutch,  French  anJ  Danish,  since 
their  language  is  composed  of  words  borrowed 
from  all  these  nations. 

I  am  persuaded  that  the  advantage  does  not  re- 
pay the  trouble  of  prosecuting  such  studies,  and 
that  they  occasion  an  enormous  waste  of  time  and 
labor.  I  had  rather  learn  ten  ideas  in  a  given 
time,  than  ten  different  signs  which  express  one 
and  the  same  idea.  We  should  never  sacrifice 
positive  knowledge  and  reflection  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  variety  of  signs.  We  should  begin  to 
acquire  notions  and  that  language  which  is  the 
most  necessary  for  us  to  converse  in.  When  I  was 
examined,  in  order  to  my  becoming  a  licentiate  of 
the  college  of  physicians  of  London,  it  would 
have  been  more  suitable  to  have  inquired  whether 
I  spoke  the  English  language  sufficiently  than 
whether  I  understood  the  Latin,  the  English  be- 
ing indispensable  to  the  practice  of  medicine  in  and 
about  London,  whilst  no  physician  examines  his 
patients  in  Latin,  any  more  than  a  barrister  de- 
fends his  clients,  or  a  preacher  exhorts  his  congre- 
gation in  that  language. 

It  is  said,  that  a  man  who  knows  Latin,  has  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education  ;  yet  it  is  a  lamentable 
thing  that  we  should  pretend  to  judge  of  a  per- 
son's useful  attainments  by  his  knowledge  of  aa- 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  109 

cient  languages.  I  wish  that  the  medical  profes- 
sion may  be  cultivated  by  men  of  superior  talents, 
but  I  hope  that  a  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek 
will  not  continue  to  be  the  touchstone  of  deciding 
who  is,  or  is  not,  fit  for  practising  this  difficult 
and  important  art.  Few  surgeons  and  physicians, 
who  are  good  classical  scholars,  will,  from  that 
circumstance,  equal  John  Hunter  in  useful  know- 
ledge, and  in  improving  the  healing  art  ;  and  yet 
he  was  not  prepared  by  the  study  of  ancient  lan- 
guages for  the  excellence  he  attained.  He  had  not 
the  advantage  of  having  received  a  scientific  edu- 
cation, and  hence  his  writings  want  clearness  of 
expressions,  but  he  might  have  acquired  the  art 
of  writing  in  a  well  conducted  English  high  school. 
It  may  be  also  remarked  with  respect  to  Shaks- 
peare,  that  he  did  not  become  the  great  poet,  he 
was,  from  being  a  great  classical  scholar. 

We  seldom  learn  to  speak  Latin  and  Greek,  or 
we  soon  lose  the  habit  of  doing  so.  Thus,  we 
learn  these  languages  in  order  to  understand  the 
contents  of  ancient  books.  This  is  well,  but  then 
we  ought,  for  the  same  reason,  to  study  all  modern 
languages;  at  least,  to  act  fully  up  to  this  princi- 
ple, medical  men  ought  to  take  that  trouble,  since, 
beyond  doubt,  all  branches  of  natural  history, 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology,  are  more 
advanced  now  than  they  were  at  the  time  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  ;  and,  of  course,  more  know- 
ledge is  to  be  obtained  on  those  subjects  from  piib 
11 


110  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

lications  in  the  modern  languasfes  of  Europe,  than 
in  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Formerly, 
when  scientific  books  of  all  nations  were  publish- 
ed in  Latin,  a  knowledge  of  it  was  necessary  ;  but 
since  the  works  of  every  nation  appear  in  the 
mother  tongue,  the  same  degree  of  importance 
can  no  longer  be  attached  to  it.  Not  every  one  is 
obliged  to  learn  Hebrew  though  he  is  exhorted  to 
read  the  Bible,  that  is  in  its  translation.  Further, 
if  men  of  science  be  contented  with  extracts  and 
translations  of  modern  works,  why  should  it  not 
be  the  same  with  respect  to  the  ancient  ?  More- 
over, the  greater  number  of  professional  men, 
who  are  much  occupied  in  practical  life,  have 
scarcely  time  to  read  what  is  written  in  their  own 
language;  their  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
therefore,  is  quite  useless  to  them  and  the  art. 

Once  I  heard  it  stated  that  the  classics  contri- 
bute to  the  refinement  of  our  feelings,  but  it  should 
be  singular,  if  we  could  not  feel  without  knowing 
Latin  and  Greek.  The  erroneousness  of  such  an 
assertion  is  evident  and  does  not  require  a  more 
detailed  refutation.  It  is  also  remarked  that 
translations  are  inferior  to  original  words  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  in  the  same  way  as  the  French  lan- 
guage cannot  express  Shakspeare's  thoughts  and 
conceptions.  This  cannot  be  said  of  the  German 
language,  and  I  do  not  say  that  Latin  and  Greek 
should  not  be  studied  at  all.  I  willingly  allow 
that  every   one  who  has  the  natural  talent  and 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  Ill 

leisure,  may  study  the  ancient  languages,  as  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  ancient  as  well  as  the  modern, 
if  so  inclined,  and  grant  him  his  hobby;  I  only 
maintain  that  a  knowledge  of  them  ought  not 
to  be  required  as  indispensable  from  every  stu- 
dent;  and  it  seems  to  me  particularly  unwise  to 
begin  our  preparatory  and  college  education  with 
tliein,  and  to  lose  so  much  time  and  labor  which 
iiiight  be  more  usefully  employed. 

It  is  replied,  that  childhood  is  the  most  fit  pe- 
riod for  learning  languages, — that  children  must 
be  trained  up  to  the  tedious  study  of  ancient 
tongues,  because,  at  a  later  period,  they  would  not 
submit  to  the  same  trouble.  This  proposition  is 
eipported  by  no  authority,  except  that  of  the  pre- 
vailing Ojjiiiion,  that  the  study  of  Latin  is  a  neces- 
sary accomplishment ;  it  falls  to  the  ground  as 
soon  as  we  feel  its  uselessness.  It  is  undoubtedly 
true,  that  youth  is  the  fittest  period  for  learning 
languages,  but  let  us  learn  those  first  which  are 
the  most  important  to  our  future  life.  Now,  the 
modern  languages  appear  to  me  to  be  the  most 
useful.  Above  ail  stands  our  mother  tongue  ;  we 
ought,  therefore,  to  begin  with  it.  The  parts  of 
speech  are  the  same  in  all  languages,  and  may  be 
learnt  in  the  modern  as  well  as  in  the  ancient.  I 
am  quite  grieved  to  see  that  many  young  ladies 
aim  at  such  accomplishments,  whilst  they  entirely 
neglect  every  kind  of  knowledge  indispensable 
to  their  future  destination  as  wife  and   mother. 


H^  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

One  should  imagine  that,  in  civilized  life  the  only 
duty  of  the  female  sex  consists  in  useless  amuse- 
ments and  by  no  means  in  the  fulfilment  of  im- 
portant functions.  I  leave  this  subject  to  the  con- 
sideration of  all  those  who  interfere  with  education 
and  the  direction  of  academic  studies.  Some 
may  think  that  I  have  entered  into  too  many  de- 
tails, but  the  importance  and  great  influence  of 
this  matter  will  plead  my  excuse.  I  am  decidedly 
of  opinion  that  in  this  respect  Educatien  stands 
in  need  of  reform.  It  is,  however,  said  that  a 
mother  may  assist  her  boys  in  acquiring  a  classi- 
cal education.  This  remark  again  supproses  that 
all  boys  ought  to  learn  Latin  and  Greek,  and  tliat 
on  account  of  the  first  error  we  must  coniiiiit  a 
second.  Yes,  a  mother  ought  to  attend  to  the  first 
education  of  her  boys  and  to  that  of  her  givh  en- 
tirely, but  let  useful  knowledge  precede  that  wliich 
is  merely  secondary.  There  may  be  single  indi- 
viduals among  girls  who  have  a  great  disposition 
to  learn  languages,  let  them  exercise  their  talenta, 
but  let  them  not  be  a  standard  for  girls  in  general. 
I  am  sure  that  few  of  them,  as  well  as  of  boys  will 
be  greatly  delighted  with  the  study  of  classics. 
On  the  other  hand  I  doubt  that  on  account  of  this 
acquirement,  girls  become  better  wives,  and  bet- 
ter mothers,  and  that  they  will,  for  this  reasoi) 
gain  the  affection  of  their  husbands.  Rich  and 
independent  females  certainly  should  be  occupied, 
and  if  they  be  married  without  having  children, 
some  may  i^be  entertained  by  the  study  of  laU' 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  113 

giiages  ancient  and  modern.  No  sensible  man 
will  object  to  this,  the  question  is  only  what  shall 
be  the  general  rule  and  what  the  exception.  It, 
however,  still  seems  to  me,  that  even  such  ladies 
might  become  more  useful  to  their  fellow-crea- 
tures and  more  meritorious  by  other  occupations. 
The  exertions  of  Mrs.  Fry  have  been  more  bene- 
fical  to  her  fellow-creatures,  than  the  classical 
knowledge  of  her  whole  sex  in  the  united  king- 
doms of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

In  the  same  way  mental  arithmetic  may  be  im- 
portant as  far  as  calculation  of'  the  useful  is  con- 
cerned. It  may  be  acceptable  to  those  who  found 
morality  on  so  frail  a  basis  as  utility  and  expe- 
diency. But  I  do  not  see  that  it  contributes  to 
diminish  selfishness,  or  to  strengthen  the  nobler 
sentiments  any  more  than  Latin  and  Greek  in- 
crease the  love  of  truth  and  the  feeling  of  consci- 
entiousness. Let  it  then  occupy  only  the  time  ne- 
cessary to  its  practical  usefulness.  I  might  also 
wish  to  be  apprised  what  useful  knowledge  young 
ladies  acquire  from  reading  at  school  works  on 
mental  philosophy.  Probably  the  same  which  little 
children  in  infant-schools,  obtain  from  reading 
and  learning  by  heart  texts  of  the  Bible  concern- 
ing miracles  and  doctrinal  points  which  divide 
the  different  sects  of  Christians.  Can  metaphysi^ 
cians  themselves  make  any  practical  application  of  \ 
their  doctrines  ? — What  an  age  of  useful  know-  / 
ledge  ;  what  an  age  of  wisdom  is  ours  ! 


114  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

The  second  principle  of  exercise  is,  that  the 
primitive  powers  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
their  application  ;  each  power  being  always  the 
same,  but  its  applications  and  modifications  infi- 
nite, according  to  age  and  external  circumstances. 
Inattention  to  this  difference,  produces  more  bad 
effects  than  many  persons  suppose.  They  com- 
plain, for  instance,  of  the  vanity  of  adult  persons^ 
while  they  continue  to  nourish  this  feeling  in 
every  child  they  meet  with.  He  who  knows  that 
the  Love  of  Approbation  is  a  fundamental  feeling  ; 
that  it  exists  in  different  degrees  of  strength  in  dif- 
ferent individuals,  and  that  exercise  increases  its 
activity,  will  not  excite  it  too  much  in  infancy, 
for  fear  that,  in  later  life,  it  should  produce  abuses. 
He  will  perceive,  that  flattery  of  every  kind  ex- 
cites this  sentiment  ;  that  praising  a  child  for  his 
figure,  his  hair,  his  voice,  his  clothes,  his  manner 
of  dancing,  &c.  will  put  into  action,  and  increase 
his  love  of  approbation,  and  prepare  for  him  a 
source  of  misfortune.  A  looking  glass  and  curls 
of  hair,  ear-rings  and  bracelets  as  well  as  titles 
nourish  this  feeling.  Irascible  children  should 
not  be  permitted,  and  still  less  encouraged,  to  beat 
their  playthings,  against  which  they  hurt  them- 
selves. As  equity  was  a  principal  object  of  the 
Areopagus  of  Athens,  that  virtue  was  considered 
as  indispensable  in  the  members  in  all  situations. 
He  who  killed  a  bird  that  looked  for  shelter  in 
his  house  could  not  become  a  member  ;  and  a 
member    who  played  on   a  word,  was  degraded, 


I^WS    OF   EXERCISE.  115 

because  such  a  practice  might  do  harm  to  truth. 
How  inferior,  nay  puerile,  is  the  behaviour  of 
some  modern  legislators  !  Those  who  are  faithful 
in  little  things,  says  Christ,  will  be  so  in  great. 
Thus  particular  vigilance  ought  at  all  times  to  be 
observed  not  to  cultivate  to  excess  the  propensi- 
ties and  sentiments  of  children,  which  may  in  after 
life  render  them  unhappy  or  impede  their  moral 
conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  wrong 
who  neglect  to  cultivate  any  feeling  or  the  facul- 
ties of  the  fine  arts,  because  disorders  may  and 
often  do  result  from  them.  This  also  happens 
with  acquisitiveness,  and  with  every  fundamental 
power,  each  of  which,  however,  is  given  to  a  cer- 
tain purpose.  In  admitting  that  every  one  is  an- 
swerable for  the  talents  he  has  received,  it  is  evi- 
dently our  duty  to  cultivate  the  fine  arts,  as  far 
as  they  are  in  harmony  with  all  other  faculties. 
Superstition  undoubtedly  degrades  a  reasonable 
being,  but  the  human  character  is  ennobled  and 
the  charms  of  society  increased  by  respectfulness. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  attending  to  the  dif- 
ference between  primitive  powers  and  their  ap- 
plication, between  their  legitimate  actions  and 
misapplications  or  disorders,  many  errors  hitherto 
committed  in  educatian  will  be  avoided.  Ladies 
want  bodily  exercise,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  make 
them  march  like  soldiers.  Since  no  female  will 
gain  the  affection  of  a  gentleman  by  a  soldier-like 
manner  of  walking.  Her  movements  should  be 
graceful  and  gentle. 


116  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

The  third  principle  of  exercise,  is,  that  the  order 
of  instruction  ought  to  follow  the  order  of  nature, 
in  bringing-  the  faculties  into  activity.  Children 
acquire  notions  before  they  make  themselves  ac- 
quainted with  signs  to  indicate  them.  They  know 
the  objects  themselves  sooner  than  their  qualities 
and  mutual  relations  ;  they  know  the  qualities  of 
those  objects  sooner  than  the  modes  of  their  ac- 
tions. Accordingly,  their  language  begins  with 
nouns,  and  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood.  By  de- 
grees, they  learn  signs  to  indicate  their  acquired 
notions  of  other  kinds.  Their  language,  then, 
evidently  shows,  that  their  faculties  do  not  appear 
simultaneously.  It  is,  indeed,  an  important  point 
in  education  to  know  that  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  begin  to  act  successively,  viz.  in  proportion 
as  the  organs  on  which  their  manifestation  depend 
are  developed.  Hence,  they  ought  to  be  exercised 
in  the  same  order ;  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
periods  of  development  of  the  respective  organs, 
is  as  necessary  as  a  knowledge  of  the  functions  of 
the  primitive  faculties  ;  because  it  is  certain  that 
no  faculty  can  be  exercised  without  the  assistance 
of  its  organ.  This  principle  is  general  in  organic 
and  animal  life. 

It  may  be  here  considered,  that  education,  as 
far  as  exercise  goes,  begins  earlier  in  life  than  is 
commonly  believed.  The  vegetative  functions, 
the  hoiu's  of  sleep,  of  appetite,  of  the  urinary 
and    alvine  excretions,    may  be  soon  regulated. 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  117 

Children  are  easily  accustomed  not  to  fall  asleep, 
ejccept  when  carried  on  the  arms  or  shaken  in  a 
cradle.  They  begin  to  make  acquaintance  with 
the  external  world  when  a  few  weeks  old.  It  is 
by  degrees  that  they  taste  and  feel,  hear  and  see  ; 
that  they  learn  to  distinguish  their  nurse,  or  those 
who  take  care  of  them,  from  strangers,  and  the 
existence  of  external  objects.  When  they  become 
attentive  to  the  things  around  them,  we  ought  to 
show  them  repeatedly  a  great  number  of  various 
objects,  and  exercise  as  much  as  possible  their  ex- 
ternal senses.  They  are  soon  tired  with  the  same 
object,  but  pleased  with  new  impressions,  as  is  the 
case  also  with  the  greater  number  of  adult  per- 
sons. Thus,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference, 
whether  a  child  be  carried  quietly  on  the  arm,  or 
v/hether  its  attention  be  excited  towards  external 
objects.  I  consider  it  as  very  important  in  whose 
society  young  children  are  kept  ;  not  that  I  think 
that  children  absolutely  acquire  the  character  and 
talents  of  those  who  are  around  them,  but  because 
their  society  will  be  favorable  or  unfavorable  to 
the  exercise  of  the  innate  dispositions. 

The  periods  when  the  innate  powers  appear, 
increase,  decrease,  or  disappear,  are  of  great  im- 
portance. Some  are  active  early  in  life,  and  con- 
tinue longer  than  others  which  appear  later. 
Now,  the  powers  will  be  cultivated  with  the  most 
effect  at  the  period  of  their  natural  activity. 


118  EDUCATION  OP    MAN. 

There  is  some  regularity  in  the  appearance  and 
disappearance  of  the  faculties,  yet  there  are  many 
exceptions  and  modifications,  as  in  all  natural 
operations.  Nature  is  immutable  only  with  re- 
spect to  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect ;  but  she 
modifies  the  phenomena  in  infinite  varieties.  It 
happens  usually,  that  those  powers  that  act  strong- 
ly, appear  early  and  last  long.  The  intellectual 
facuhies  and  several  feelings,  commonly  decrease 
in  old  age.  Several  persons,  however,  are  par- 
ticularly fortunate  in  preserving  the  energy  of  their 
mind  to  a  great  age  ;  but  the  greater  number  of 
old  people  are  deceived,  if  they  take  themselves  to 
be  still  what  they  were  when  young. 

Among  the  intellectual  faculties,  those  of  indi- 
viduality, form,  eventuality,  comparison,  and  lan- 
guage, appear  first.  Children  soon  know  many 
individual  objects  and  facts,  and  conceive  general 
notions  ;  they  call,  for  instance,  every  young  being, 
child.  Then  the  faculties  of  size,  coloring,  local- 
ity, number,  order,  time  and  tune,  appear  succes- 
sively. Objects  and  their  phenomena  ought  to  be 
taught  first,  and  afterwards  the  qualities  of  objects 
and  their  relations. 

Among  the  feelings  or  affective  faculties,  those 
of  attachment,  cautiousness,  love  of  approbation, 
acquisitiveness,  combativeness,  secretiveness,  de- 
etructivenessj  firmness,  benevolence,  conscientious- 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  119 

ness,  and  imitation,  are  very  early  active.     Those 
of  reverence  and  amativeness  appear  much  later. 

Let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that  from  the  earliest 
age,  the  feelings,  as  well  as  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties, may  be  educated,  and  that  young  children 
show  no  less  difference  in  their  characters  than  in 
their  talents.  They  are  patient  or  obstinate,  indo- 
lent or  lively,  timid  or  courageous,  attached  to, 
or  careless  about  others.  Sic.  Let  those  powers 
which  are  naturally  too  active  be  quieted,  and 
their  activity  prevented  ;  while  those  that  do  not 
act  with  energy  enough,  ought  to  be  excited  in  a 
practical  manner.  As  imitation  is  particularly  ac- 
tive, good  exan^ples  and  the  best  impressions  of  all 
kinds  should  be  given. 

In  treating  of  the  vegetative  laws  I  have  stated, 
that  very  young  children  ought  not  to  be  obliged 
to  sit  still  in  an  apartment  all  the  day,  as  is  some- 
times the  case  in  common  school  education.  Par- 
ticular places,  in  healthy  situations,  might  be  in- 
stituted, where  children  could  come  together  to 
play,  and  at  intervals  to  learn  things  in  nature, 
and  their  names,  objects  and  their  qualities,  in- 
stead of  sending  them  out  only  to  take  a  walk,  or 
to  breathe  pure  air.  Parents  might  thus  have  the 
advantage  of  having  their  children  kept  out  of 
harm's  way,  and  the  young  creatures  themselves 
would  not  be  compelled  to  suffer  the  distresses 
necessarily    experienced  when    restrained  from 


120  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

moving  ther  limbs,  nor  be  tired  by  unprofitable 
learning.  They  would  be  pleased  with  acquiring 
the  knowledge  of  things  and  of  words  to  express 
them,  and  at  the  same  time,  they  might  be  accus- 
tomed to  order  and  obedience.  They  will  also 
learn  the  signs  which  express  the  feelings,  and 
their  relations,  in  proportion  as  the  feelings  are 
excited  in  themselves.  Gymnastic  exercises  might 
and  ought  to  be  combined  with  mental  instruction. 
The  principal  object  of  such  schools  should  be 
bodily  strength,  order,  cleanliness,  notions  of 
things,  and  oral  signs. 

The  schools  for  young  children  in  Mr.  Owen's 
establishment  at  New  Lanark,  first  exhibited,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  practical  application  of  these 
principles  in  uniting  physical  and  intellectual  edu- 
cation. The  infant  schools  since  introduced  in 
London  and  in  the  rest  of  Great  Britain  do  the 
same  ;  and  no  one  can  observe  the  happiness  and 
intelligence  which  reign  among  the  children 
there,  without  wishing  this  mode  of  instruction 
generally  adopted  ;  though  it  may  be  still  im- 
proved and  more  adapted  to  the  nature  of  man. 
Unfortunately  for  the  young  beings  this  mode  of 
instruction  has  already  degenerated  from  its  first 
plan.  Many  teachers  find  it  too  difficult  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  children.  From  habit,  and  per- 
haps from  commodiousness ,  they  prefer  to  keep 
them  quiet,  and  to  teach  them  A.  B.  C.  and 
spelling  rather  than  to  satisfy  the  active  dispo- 
sitions of  the  young  minds.  Whoever  takesinterest 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  121 

in  the  improvement  of  education,  should  first  think 
of  means  of  forming  teachers. 

The  fourth  principle  of  exercise  is,  that  it  must 
be  proportionate  to  the  innate  dispositions.  Too 
much  activity  weakens  or  even  exhausts  the  facul- 
ties, both  feelings  and  intellect.  This  explains 
why  too  early  geniuses,  often  become  ordinary 
men  when  grown  up  ;  why  the  mental  operations, 
when  too  active,  are  frequently  deranged,  and 
why  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  balance  between 
body  and  mind,  and  between  the  individual  facul 
ties. 

The  brains  of  delicate   children  and  premature 
geniuses  ought  to  be  exercised  late,  and  the  greater 
their  mental  activity  is,  the  less  it  needs  to  be  ex 
ercised  ;  and  the  more  care   is  to  be  taken  of  the 
body  and  the  physical  education. 

It  is  also  very  important  to  know,  that  during 
the  climacteric  years,  when  the  body  increases 
most  rapidly,  the  mental  powers  are  weaker. 
Hence,  at  that  period,  the  body  deserves  greater 
attention  than  the  mind.  The  mental  faculties 
will  resume  their  activity,  when  the  body  has  ac- 
quired its  solidity. 

Increased   or   diminished  energy   is  dependent 
not  only  on  the  periods  of  growth,  but  all  powers 
are  liable  to  be  occasionally  more  or  less  fatigued. 
12 


t^  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

No  power  is  always  equally  active,   each  requires 
rest.     It  is,  therefore,  advisable   to   exercise  one 
power  after  another,  and  to  allow  to  children  suf- 
ficient sleep.     As  any  faculty,  if  too  much  excited, 
is  injured,  or  even  exhausted,  so  is  it  weakened  if 
it  remain  too  long*  inactive.     Teachers  may  easily 
perceive  the  disadvantages  of  too  long  a  cessation 
from  study  in  the  effects  of  vacation   on  their  pu- 
pils.    These  latter  always  find   some  difficulty  in 
returning  to  application  and  order.      Intermission 
is  necessary  as  well  as  exercise,  but  neither  ought 
to  be  of  too  long  a  duration.  They  are  relative,  and 
education  requires  to  be  amended  in  this   respect. 
A  long  vacation  is  more  favorable  to   the  teachers 
than  to  the  students.     The  former,  it  is  true,  want 
rest,  but  they  might  alternate,  for  the  same  reason 
as  the  objects  to  be  taught  must  be  changed  from 
time  to  time.     Education  should  never  be  tedious, 
nor  too  long  interrupted  ;  different  faculties  should 
be  put  successively  into  action,  which  produces  a 
kind  of  relaxation,    and   sufficient   care  ought  al- 
ways to  be  taken  that  the  bodily  constitution  does 
not  suffer  by  pressing  too  keenly  the  progress  of 
mental   instruction.       Children,   who   return   for 
months  to  their  family,  are  rathar  spoiled,  during 
that  time,  than  improved  in  order  and  obedience. 
They  are  indulged  in  their  caprices,  and  see  con- 
duct practised  in   direct  opposition  to  what  they 
are   taught  at  school   to   regard   as  meritorious. 
The  frequent  and  long  interruptions   of  practising 
the  theoretical  rules,  prevent  them  from  becoming 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  123 

altogether  accustomed  to  them,  and  they  wish  for 
nothing  more  earnestly  than  that  the  time  of  learn- 
ing- might  be  over,  to  be  permitted  to  act  in  oppo- 
sition to  what  they  have  been  taught,  and  to  for- 
get the  ideas  they  have  had  so  much'  difficulty  in 
acquiring. 

The  fifth  principle  of  exercise  is,  that  its  influ- 
ence will  not  be  the  same  on  every  individual,  on 
account  of  the  innate  dispositions.  Even  different 
children  of  the  same  parents,  and  brought  up  by 
the  same  teachers,  turn  out  quite  differently.  In- 
deed the  fact,  that  the  dispositions  are  innate,  can- 
not be  insisted  on  too  much.  We  must  say  with 
Hume,  (Essays  on  Morality,  3rd  edit.  p.  93.)  that 
the  innnence  of  education  would  be  miraculously 
great,  could  it  but  create  one  sense,  and  that  this 
miracle  is  reserved  to  our  Maker;  that  education 
may  cherish  and  improve  the  plants  of  natures  for- 
mation, but  cannot  introduce  any  original  plant. 
Helvetius,  who  considered  man  as  the  result  of 
education  alone,  was  obliged  to  allow  that  "  une 
folic  passee  rarement  eclaire  les  hommes  sur  une 
folic  presente."  Marcus  Aurelius  calls  little 
politicians,  and  compares  with  children,  those 
who  maintain  that  whole  nations  might  be  changed 
into  philosophers.  He  was  satisfied  by  being  able 
to  contribute  in  a  slight  degree  to  common  welfare, 
and  to  improve  a  few  persons.  He  denies  the 
possibility  of  establishing  Plato's  republic.  He 
in  particular  insists  on  the  importance  of  making 


124  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

any  new  idea  popular.  He  adds,  that '  without 
this  precaution  the  success  is  impossible,  that  ab- 
solute power  and  lessons  remain  without  effect, 
if  the  manners  of  the  people  do  not  change ;  that 
in  this  case,  nations  are  but  slaves,  and  complain 
of  restraint,  or  are  hypocrites,  and  feign  to  be  per- 
suaded. 

It  is  more  easy  to  cultivate  the  lower  feelings, 
since  they  are  naturally  stronger  in  mankind  ;  in 
the  same  manner  those  who  are  virtuous  by  na- 
ture will  sooner  learn  to  practice  moral  principles 
than  those  in  whom  the  lower  propensities  pre- 
dominate. Those  who  have  little  conscientious- 
ness will  with  great  difficulty  learn  to  be  just  in  a 
higher  degree,  in  the  same  way  as  those  who  j :.:s- 
sess  any  intellectual  faculty  in  a  small  degree,  will 
never  excel  in  it.  The  greater  the  disposition,  the 
greater  the  effect  of  exercise  ;  yet  it  is  always 
true,  that  a  proper  degree  of  exercise  strengthens 
the  functions  of  each  power. 

The  preceding  consiaerations  on  exercise  afford 
an  opportunity  of  speaking  of  the  method  of  mu- 
tual instruction.  It  is  inconceivable  how  its  ad- 
vantages can  be  contested.  I  rather  excuse  those 
v/ho  contend  for  the  beneficial  effects  of  ignorance, 
and  who  object,  that  mutual  instruction  is  a  means 
of  teaching  in  too  short  a  time,  than  those  who 
acknowledge  the  benefit  of  general  information, 
and  yet  hesitate  to  employ  this  method.     Its  supe- 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  '        125 

riority  is  too  evident  to  be  long  impeded  by  its 
novelty. 

It  is  my  decided  opinion,  that  this  method 
ought  to  be  used  in  all  branches  of  knowledge, 
which  may  be  acquired  by  the  influence  of  teach- 
ers, or  which  may  be  taught.  Even  those  who 
are  destined  to  improve  arts  and  sciences  will  gain 
by  it.  The  reason  of  this  is  very  simple,  and 
founded  on  the  influence  of  exercise  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  this  method  has  the  great  additional 
recommendation  of  being  the  least  expensive  mode 
of  instruction.  This  advantage  is  certainly  of  im- 
portance, but  I  shall  examine  only  the  benefits 
which  result  from  exercise. 

If  there  be  many  children  or  students  together, 

the    school  hours  are   not   sufficient  to    examine 

every  one.     Young  persons,  however,  who  are  not 

examined,  are  less  attentive  to  their  studies  than 

those  who  are  ;  their  faults,  not  being  remarked, 

are   not   corrected,   and  only  a  few  are   noticed. 

In  large  classes  all  that  can  be  expected  at  present 

is,  that  the  teacher  should  explain    every  thing 

distinctly,  and  repeat  it  with  a  few  scholars.     He 

addresses  himself  commonly  to  those  who  learn 

quickly.     Should  it  happen  that  the  master  speaks 

to  others  of  less  talents,  the  better  heads,  knowing 

their  lesson,  cease  to  pay  attention,  or  at  least  are 

soon  wearied  of  doing  so.     But  were  the  better 

students  obliged  to  repeat  the  lesson   with    the 
12* 


126  EDUCATION    OF    MAN.  ( 

others,  they  would  experience  that  we  learn  by 
teaching  ;  they  would  feel  inclined  to  go  over  and 
over  the  same  thing  with  those  intrusted  to  them 
for  instruction,  while,  in  the  common  way,  they 
cease  to  repeat  their  lessons  when  left  alone.  At 
the  same  time  the  students  of  less  capacities  will 
be  more  attentive,  and,  on  account  of  the  constant 
repetition,  they  will  remember  what  was  lost  at 
the  mere  explanation  of  the  master. 

Let  us  examine  any  branch  of  education  what- 
ever, and  we  shall  find  that  the  advantages  of  this 
method  are  always  the  same.  We  may  take  a 
mathematical  problem  for  the  sake  of  example. 
Suppose  the  rules  to  have  been  taught,  and  that 
they  are  to  be  applied.  Those  scholars  who  pos- 
sess the  mathematical  talent  in  a  high  degree,  will 
soon  finish  their  problem,  and  will  be  obliged  to 
wait  in  irksome  idleness  till  many  others,  who 
cannot  follow  so  quickly,  have  done.  If  the  for- 
mer, only,  are  called  for  by  the  master  to  resolve 
the  problem-  the  others  hear  it,  but  it  is  not  at- 
tended with  the  same  advantage  to  them,  as  if  they 
were  called  to  work  for  themselves.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  scholars,  with  little  mathematical 
genius,  be  chiefly  examined,  those  who  excel  in 
that  talent  will  lose  their  time,  and  neglect  what 
they  know,  while  their  attention  v/ould  be  excited 
if  they  were  employed  in  teaching  their  condisci- 
ples.  Their  natural  activity  may  even  lead  them 
to  do  mischief,  whilst  they  are  not  otherwise  oc- 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  127 

cupied.  It  is  the  same  with  spelling,  writing-, 
drawing,  dancing,  learning  history,  geography, 
languages,  in  short,  with  every  branch  of  know- 
ledge that  is  taught. 

The  practice  of  the  common  method  can  be 
excused  only  by  the  supposition,  that  all  pupils 
are  endowed  with  the  same  degree  of  abilities.  As, 
however,  daily  experience  shows  the  contrary,  it 
ought  no  longer  to  be  tolerated,  if  the  object  be  to 
take  the  greatest  possible  advantage  of  the  period 
of  education.  The  new  method  is  particularly 
useful  in  schools  where  all  classes  of  children  are 
collected  together  in  the  same  room,  and  where, 
in  the  common  method  of  teaching,  while  one 
class  is  examined  the  others  are  doing  nothing. 
Children  are  in  general  required  to  learn  by  them- 
selves, but  few  only  are  capable  of  this  exertion. 
According  to  the  new  method,  all  classes  go  on  at 
the  same  time,  and  the  same  subject  is  repeated 
till  every  child  knows  it. 

In  colleges,  where  each  class  is  separated,  the 
necessity  of  the  new  method  is  less  felt  ;  yet,  the 
above-mentioned  reasons  induce  me  to  think,  that 
it  should  be  employed  in  all  large  classes,  where 
the  pupils,  on  account  of  their  different  degrees 
of  capacities,  naturally  form  themselves  into  seve- 
ral subdivisions. 

The  superioiity  of  a  new  method,  ought  to  de- 
termine the  directors  of  instruction,  to  make  a 


128  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

new  classification  in  colleges,  according  to  the 
subjects  to  be  taught.  There  should  be  one  pro- 
fessor for  each  branch  of  knowledge  ;  one  for  his- 
tory, one  for  geography,  one  for  the  mother 
tongue,  one  for  Latin,  one  for  Greek,  one  for 
poetry,  one  for  mathematics,  &c.  The  pupils 
who  study  the  same  branch  might  be  brought  to- 
gether, but  divided  into  different  classes  ;  those, 
for  instance,  who  study  history  might  be  in  the 
same  room,  but  divided  into  several  classes.  A 
similar  arrangement  should  prevail  among  the 
students  of  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  geography, 
&c.  The  professor  of  each  branch  might  put  all 
his  classes  into  action  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  done  in  the  schools  for  children. 
Monitors  might  take  his  place  in  the  inferior 
classes.  In  this  way,  the  pupils  would  make 
more  progress  than  they  commonly  do.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  state  how  many  professors  might  be 
instituted,  for  there  might  be  as  many  as  branches 
are  found  to  be  requisite.  The  principal  object  I 
here  contend  for  is,  that  the  better  students  should 
instruct  the  inferior  ones,  when  the  masters  are 
not  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  Emulation  would 
induce  the  monitors  to  employ  their  leisure  mo- 
ments in  learning  new  subjects.  Moreover,  the 
time  which  the  masters  give  to  explanation  is 
short  ;  that  employed  by  the  scholars  in  learning 
occupies  a  greater  portion.  This  portion  of  time 
will  be  filled  ud  to  more  advantage  by  the  method 
of  mutual  instruction,  than  if  every  one  is  left  to 
himself  alone  ;  and  those  who  instruct  others  will, 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  129 

in  this  way,  derive  even  the  greatest  advantage. 
This  method,  being*  new,  has  met  with  adversa- 
ries ;  but  whoever  will  set  an  example  of  using  it 
in  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge,  will  find  its 
superiorty  the  same  as  it  is  already  ascertained 
to  be  in  teaching  the  first  elements  of  education. 
The  fundamental  principle  implied  in  the  method 
of  mutual  instruction,  is  one  and  the  same  for 
whatever  is  taught  to  many  pupils  at  once.  At 
colleges,  those  who  are  very  zealous  form  private 
classes  for  repetition  among  themselves,  and  others 
who  have  means,  pay  repeaters.  Every  improved 
system  of  learning  admits  the  advantage  of  repe- 
tition, and  all  teachers  speak  in  favor  of  numerous 
instructors.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  monito- 
rial system.  It  is  objected  that  boys  do  not  teach 
soundly.  I  reply  that  in  that  case  they  are  not 
taught,  or  do  not  learn  soundly.  It  is  applicable 
to  monitors  what  we  may  say  of  instructors 
throughout  :  The  most  learned  is  not  always  the 
best  teacher.  The  head  master  ought  to  under- 
stand human  nature  and  to  choose  the  proper 
monitors.  Farther,  if  the  monitorial  system  has 
failed  to  produce  the  desired  result,  we  may  say, 
*'•  what  is  best  administered  is  best,"  and  not  at 
once  accuse  or  reject  a  new  doctrine,  or  system, 
because  it  is  not  understood.  I  have  seen  the 
monitorial  system  applied  with  astonishing  effect. 
I  will  mention  only  Wood's  Sessional  School  at 
Edinburgh  in  Scotland,  where  the  children  of  the 
lower  classes  are  instructed,  with  little  expense,  in 


130  EDUCATION    OP   MAN. 

a  manner  which  should  do  honor  to  those  of 
the  first  ranks,  and  it  is  done  by  the  monitorial 
system.* 

The  principal  point  of  the  Hamiltonian  system 
too  is  that  of  continued  exercise.  Numerous 
teachers  replace  the  monitors  ;  and  the  same  les- 
son is  constantly  repeated.  The  other  great  point 
of  this  system,  which  teaches  to  learn  a  language 
without  the  grammatical  rules,  does  not  seem  to 
me  equally  applicable  to  every  individual.  It  will 
however,  please  the  great  number,  and  in  gene- 
ral those  who  attach  themselves  little  to  principles  ; 
whilst  those  whose  reflective  powers  are  large, 
will  be  desirous  of  knowing  from  the  beginning 
the  rules  contained  in  their  language. 

The  advantage  of  repetition  then  being  evident, 
and  confirmed  by  daily  observation,  it  ought  to 
be  more  generally  practised  than  it  is  done  in  pub- 
lic institutions.  The  more  the  pupils  are  examin- 
ed, the  more  they  will  learn,  and  the  clearer  their 
notions  will  be. 

It  may  be  asked,  whether  exercising  the  affec- 
tive and  intellectual  powers,  makes  the  respective 
organs  increase  ^  Each  part  of  the  body,  being 
properly  exercised,  increases  and  acquires  more 

*  See  review  of  Wood's  account  of  the  Edinburgh  Sessional  School 
in  the  American  annals  of  education,  vol.  1. 


LAWS    OF    EXERCISE.  131 

strength.  The  fact  is  known  to  be  so,  with  re- 
spect to  the  muscles  of  woodcutters,  smiths,  run- 
ners, &c.  Now,  the  brain  and  its  parts  are  sub- 
ject to  all  the  laws  of  organization;  they  are 
nourished  like  the  arms  and  legs.  Cerebral  ac- 
tivity, therefore,  determines  the  blood  towards  the 
head,  in  the  same  way  as  the  blood  is  carried  to 
any  other  part  when  irritated,  and  this  law  of  the 
organization  may  enable  us  to  account  for  the  de- 
velopment of  certain  parts  of  the  brain  of  whole 
nations,  and  to  explain  national  characters,  if  in- 
dividual powers  are  cultivated  during  successive 
generations.  I  can  speak  with  certainty  from  re- 
peated observations.  The  changes  of  cerebral 
development,  when  the  individual  powers  are  ex- 
ercised, or  kept  quiet,  are  astonishing.  In  the  for 
mer  case  individual  organs  increase,  and  in  the  lat 
ter  they  not  only  stand  still  in  growth,  but  some 
times  become  absolutely  smaller. 

The  growth  of  the  organs,  however,  is  not  the 
only  or  even  most  important  advantage  to  be  de 
rived  from  proper  exercise,  for  it  is  certain  that 
organic  parts,  such  as  the  muscles,  the  senses,  the 
brain,  &c.  do  not  increase  in  size  in  proportion  to 
their  exercise.  The  muscles  which  move  the  fin- 
gers of  a  musician,  for  instance,  who  plays  on  a 
piano  forte,  will  acquire  more  facility  and  agility 
than  size  by  the  exercise.  If  we  walk  little  dur- 
ing winter,  and  take  more  bodily  exercise  in  the 
spring,  we  are  easily  fatigued  at  the  beginning, 


1^  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

but,  by  degrees,  we  can  make  greater  excursions 
without  suffering  by  them.  Yet  the  muscles  do 
not  grow  in  proportion  as  walking  becomes  easy. 
In  the  same  way,  the  size  of  the  organ  of  tune,  or 
of  any  other  power,  will  not  augment  in  propor- 
tion to  its  being  exercised,  but  its  fibres  will  act 
with  more  facility. 

I  finish  this  chapter  by  repeating  the  principal 
points  detailed  in  it :  Exercising  is  the  same  as 
putting  into  action  ; — each  faculty  must  be  exer- 
cised for  itself; — the  means  of  exercising  the 
powers  are  of  great  importance  ; — exercise  of  the 
faculties  should  take  place  in  proportion  as  their 
respective  organs  are  developed  ; — exercise  must 
be  proportionate  to  the  innate  dispositions,  too 
little  or  too  much  does  harm,  but  applied  in  a 
proper  degree,  it  makes  the  organs  increase  in  size, 
modifies  their  internal  constitution,  and  produces 
greater  activity  and  facility.  The  effect  of  the 
same  exercise  is  different,  on  account  of  the  innate 
dispositions  of  different  individuals.  It  has  been 
hitherto  feeble,  particularly  in  reference  to  the 
moral  feelings  ;  but  it  will  be  greater,  when  the 
innate  dispositions  of  the  mind  and  the  laws  of  ex- 
ercise are  understood  and  attended  to.  The  re- 
quired reform  of  education  must  begin  with  form- 
ing teachers  themselves.  Their  influence  being  of 
the  first  rate,  they  must  rank  high  in  Society,  and 
their  reward  ought  to  be  honorable.  This  might 
be  done  by  the  assistance  of  the  monitorial  system, 


MUTUAL    INFLUENCE    OP    THE    FACULTIES.      133 

and  without  increasing  the  general  expense.  There 
is  so  much  zeal  for  education  in  the  United  States, 
particularly  in  New  England,  that  this  condition  of 
improvement  I  hope  will  occupy  the  minds  of 
American  philanthropists.  They  will  consult  the 
American  annals  of  education  and  instruction,  and 
learn  what  has  been  done  in  Europe,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  what  different  teach- 
ers themselves  propose  in  reference  to  Seminaries 
of  this  kind. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON  THE  MUTUAL  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  FACULTIES,  AS  A 
MEANS    OF    EXCITEMENT. 

The  fourth  condition  which  contributes  to  in- 
crease the  activity  of  the  faculties,  is  their  Mutual 
Influence.  To  employ  this  means  it  is  necessary 
to  understand,  that  each  power  may  be  active  by 
its  internal  energy,  or  by  its  being  excited  by  one 
or  several  other  faculties  ;  and  that  on  the  other 
hand,  each  power  may  be  inactive  either  by  its 
want  of  energy,  or  by  the  influence  of  other  facul- 
ties.    This  consideration  deserves  every  attention 

in  practical  education.     It  supposes  in  the  teacher 
13 


134  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

who  wishes  to  reap  from  it  all  the  advantages  pos- 
sible, a  knowledge  of  the  primitive  faculties  of  the 
mind,  of  the  natural  connection  of  their  organs, 
and  of  the  individual  dispositions  of  him  who  is 
to  be  educated. 

It  is  a  general  law,  that  organic  parts  which 
contribute  to  the  same  function  excite  one  another. 
The  organs  of  smell  and  taste,  the  nerves  of  hun- 
ger and  thirst,  and  the  digestive  power,  are  in  in- 
timate connection.  Smell  and  taste  often  whet 
appetite,  and  the  appetite  excites  the  sense  of 
taste  ;  it  is  therefore  justly  said,  that  hunger  is  the 
best  cook.  The  internal  feelings  are  equally  sub- 
ject to  mutual  influence.  Amativeness,  and  philo- 
progenitiveness,  frequently  excite  combativeness, 
viz.  male  animals  fight  more  when  under  the  in- 
fluence of  amativeness  than  at  other  periods.  Fe- 
males defend  their  young  ones  with  more  courage 
than  any  other  object.  Acquisitiveness  and  cau- 
tiousness, excite  secretiveness  to  act.  Attachment 
may  put  cautiousness  into  action,  or  we  may  fear 
for  the  sake  of  friends  more  than  for  others. 
Firmness  may  assist  hope  and  justice,  reverence 
and  self-esteem ;  and  it  may  be  assisted  by  the 
other  feelings.  In  short,  each  feeling  may  be 
stimulated  by  one  or  several  others. 

Mutual  influence  exists,  also,  with  respect  to  the 
intellectual  faculties,  and  is  called  Association  of 
Ideas.     Those  persons,  however,  who  consider  as- 


MUTUAL    INFLUENCE    OF    THE    FACULTIES.         135 

sociation  as  a  primitive  power,  are  mistaken,  for 
the  activity  of  at  least  two  powers,  whose  functions 
are  associated,  is  necessarily  implied  in  its  very 
existence.  Now,  this  mutual  influence  takes  place 
among  the  feelings  as  well  as  among  the  faculties 
of  the  understanding,  and  among  feelings  and  in- 
tellectual faculties  promiscuously  ;  that  is,  one  or 
several  feelings  may  excite  intellectual  operations, 
and  vice  versa. 

The  mutual  influence  of  the  faculties  is  the  ba- 
sis of  what  is  called  Mnemonics,  or  of  the  art  of 
strengthening  memory.  This  art  is  very  ancient, 
but  in  consequence  of  its  principles  not  being 
sufiiciently  understood,  it  has  been  rejected  by 
some,  and  extolled  to  excess  by  others.  The  great 
errors  committed  in  mnemonics,  resemble  those 
committed  in  all  branches  of  education,  and  in  all 
sorts  of  institutions.  Teachers  of  every  sort  look 
upon  themselves  as  the  standard  for  the  whole  of 
mankind,  and  commonly  have  recourse  to  that 
faculty  which  is  the  most  active  in  them,  repro- 
duces the  most  easily  its  anterior  perceptions,  and 
excites  other  powers  with  the  greatest  facility. 
They  err  in  overlooking  the  differences  of  the 
innate  dispositions  and  talents  of  different  indi- 
viduals. /' 

The  most  common  kind  of  mnemonics  is  found- 
ed on  language ;  that  is,  words  recall  individua. 
notions.     Written  signs  do  the  same,  in  bringing 


136  EDUCATION   OF    MAN. 

to  our  recollection  sounds  and  ideas  ;  they  depend 
on  the  faculty  of  configuration.  If  we  resolve  up- 
on doing  a  thing  in  a  distant  place,  and  after  set- 
ting out  to  go  there,  forget  our  design,  and  recol- 
lect it  only  on  returning  to  the  place  where  the 
resolution  was  first  made,  the  power  of  locality  is 
the  means  of  mnemonics,  and  many  teachers  of 
mnemonics  have  recourse  to  this  faculty ;  they 
combine  ideas  with  places,  and  in  thinking  of  the 
latter  they  remember  the  former.  It  seems  that 
the  ancient  orators  employed  these  means,  in  or- 
der to  learn  their  discourses  with  greater  facility. 
Their  proceeding  appears  to  be  indicated  by  the 
expressions  denoting  the  divisions  of  the  subject, 
such  as  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  place,  &c. 
This  power  may  indeed,  if  it  be  strong,  assist  the 
other  faculties.  Persons  endowed  with  it,  may 
divide  and  subdivide,  in  their  minds,  a  given 
place,  and  put  into  each  compartment  a  particu- 
lar notion,  and  the  idea  will  be  called  to  recollec- 
tion, in  thinking  of  the  corner  where  it  has  been 
lodged.  Locality,  however,  will  be  of  little  use 
to  those  who  possess  it  only  in  a  small  degree ; 
whilst  if  they  be  endowed  with  the  power  of  Form 
in  a  high  degree,  they  will  combine  a  notion  with 
a  figure  with  great  facility.  We  may  also,  with 
other  mnemonists,  have  recourse  to  several  facul- 
ties at  the  same  time,  to  fix  the  recollection  of  an 
object. 


MUTUAL    INFLUENCE    OF    THE    FACULTIES.      137 

This  proceeding  then  may  be  applied  with  great 
advantage  in  education  ;  but  it  is  to  be  remember- 
ed, that  the  most  active  powers  furnish  the  best 
means  of  mnemonics,  and  that  any  particular  mode 
of  association  useful  to  one  may  be  useless  to 
another,  on  account  of  the  differences  in  the  innate 
faculties.  The  general  rule  is  to  exercise,  at  the 
same  time,  as  many  faculties  as  possible  in  combi- 
nation with  each  other,  and  even  with  the  senses. 
The  activity  of  one  or  several  faculties,  may  ex- 
cite the  peculiar  action  of  mind  we  wish  for.  The 
smell  of  a  flower  may  recall  the  place  where  we 
perceived  it  first,  or  many  particular  circumstan- 
ces connected  with  it.  The  powers  of  Compari- 
son and  of  Causality,  are  often  usefully  exercised 
to  this  purpose,  particularly  in  persons  who  can- 
not learn  by  heart  what  they  do  not  understand. 
Others  who  have  Imitation  and  Ideality  large, 
recollect  easily  things  expressed  with  ideality. 
Every  one  remembers  best  those  phenomena,  or 
those  points  in  history,  which  are  in  the  most  in- 
timate relation  with  his  strongest  feelings  and  in- 
tellectual faculties.  These  faculties  enter  into  ac- 
tion with  the  greatest  facility,  reproduce  their  sen- 
sations, that  is,  appear  as  memory,  and  excite  the 
other  faculties. 

The  strongest  illustration  of  the  effects  of  mu- 
tual influence  among  the  faculties,  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  effect  of  emulation  in  children,  and  the  desire 
of  distinction  among  men.     Many  students  learn 
13* 


138  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

more,  in  consequence  of  excitement  produced  by 
emulation,  than  by  the  innate  activity  of  their  un- 
derstandings. The  love  of  approbation,  indeed, 
may  excite  every  other  power.  Soldiers  do  not 
always  behave  bravely,  from  the  desire  to  fight 
alone ;  but  sometimes  they  do  so  from  love  of 
glory.  Some  men  of  talents  ruin  their  health  by 
continued  study,  as  frequently  from  a  desire  of 
distinction  as  from  a  strong  passion  for  the  study 
itself. 

Acquisitiveness,  or  the  desire  of  gain,  is  another 
great  cause  of  excitement  of  other  faculties.  Its 
influence,  and  that  of  the  Love  of  Approbation, 
are  of  such  power,  that  many  philosophers  have 
considered  these  two  motives  as  sufficient  to  ex- 
plain all  particular  manifestations  of  the  mind. 
But  however  strong  their  energy  may  be,  they 
never  produce  powers,  they  only  excite  the  in- 
nate faculties  to  act.  This  fact  ought  to  be 
specially  attended  to  in  education.  It  is  under- 
stood by  phrenology.  If  two  boys  possess  the  same 
natural  endowment  of  the  faculty  of  Language, 
but  the  one  double  the  Love  of  Approbation  of  the 
other,  he,  by  the  influence  of  the  latter  faculty, 
may  be  rendered  the  more  excellent  scholar  of  the 
two.  But  if  the  Love  of  Approbation  is  equal  in 
both,  he  who  possesses  Language  naturally  more 
powerful,  will  undoubtedly  excel. 


MUTUAL    INFLUENCE    OF    THE    FACULTIES.      139 

The  mutual  influence  of  the  faculties  being  also 
a  means  by  which  we  may  direct  their  employ- 
ment, I  shall  enter  more  into  detail  on  this  subject 
in  the  next  Section,  where  I  speak  of  the  Motives 
of  our  Actions. 

From  the  considerations  unfolded  in  the  preced- 
ing Chapters,  I  draw  the  conclusions  that  Educa- 
tion ought  to  be  founded  on  the  knowledge  of 
Man ;  that  the  true  principles  of  education  ought 
not  to  be  confounded  with  school-learning  ;  that 
great  improvements  remain  to  be  made  even  with 
respect  to  instruction  in  arts  and  sciences,  and  that 
the  education  of  the  Feelings,  which  I  consider 
as  the  most  important,  and  place  far  above  that 
of  the  Understanding,  will  require  to  be  quite 
newly  modelled. 

It  is  admitted  and  stated  in  the  Preface,  that 
several  views  developed  in  this  work  are  not  new, 
but  there  is  a  difference  betwixt  knowing  a  fact, 
and  knowing  the  principle  of  it,  and  Phrenology 
alone  can  reduce  to  a  science  and  system  the  iso- 
lated observations  which  had  formerly  been  made. 
This  assertion  will  be  farther  confirmed  in  the 
following  pages. 


140 


SECTION  II. 


ON    THE    DIRECTION    OF    THE    FACULTIES. 

After  having  examined  the  conditions  which 
contribute  to  the  greater  or  less  activity  of  the 
mental  faculties,  I  shall  consider  the  direction 
which  ought  to  be  given  to  their  actions.  In  the 
same  way  as,  in  the  first  Section,  I  held  it  estab- 
lished by  Phrenology,  that  all  dispositions  are  in- 
nate, and  that  their  manifestations  depend  on  ce- 
rebral parts,  called  organs;  so  I  suppose  here, 
that  my  ideas  on  the  moral  nature  of  Man,  as  de- 
tailed in  the  second  or  philosophical  part  of  Phre- 
nology, are  known.  Phrenology  shows  that  there 
is  a  natural  arrangement  among  the  faculties,  and 
this  circumstance  is'the  foundation  of  the  moral 
character  of  Man.  To  understand  fully  the  ideas 
unfolded  in  this  Section,  it  is  also  necessary  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  sphere  of  activity  of  each 
special  faculty  of  the  Mind,  and  with  the  modifica- 
tions of  their  manifestations.  This  information 
likewise  is  communicated  in  the  volumes  on  Phre- 
nology. 


tMPORTANCE    OF    MORALITY.  141 

In  employing  and  directing  the  faculties  of 
Mankind,  we  ought  to  proceed  according  to  fixed 
and  ascertained  principles;  the  first  and  most 
important  of  which  is,  That  human  actions  are 
objects  of  moral  regulation  :  The  second  is,  That 
each  faculty  has  a >  tendency  to  act:  The  third 
concerns  the  knowledge  of  the  inducements  or 
sources  of  our  actions  ;  and  the  fourth  the  differ- 
ence of  natural  gifts.  I  shall,  therefore,  divide 
this  Section  into  four  Chapters. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE    IMPORTANCE    OF    MORALITY. 

According  to  my  ideas  of  the  moral  character 
of  Man,  his  actions  ought  to  be  subordinate,  or 
conformable  to  the  whole  of  the  faculties  proper 
to  mankind,  and  all  actions  which  are  in  contra- 
diction to  the  whole  of  these  properly  human 
faculties  are  bad.  The  point  which  I  wish  now 
to  impress  on  the  minds  of  my  readers  is,  that 
human  nature  is  so  constituted  by  the  Creator, 
that  morality  is  as  necessary  to  the  prosperity 
of  Mankind,  as  oxygen  to  combustion,  caloric  to 
vegetation,  and  respiration  to  human  life,  and 
that  not  the  animal  but  the  human  powers  are  the 
end  of  human  existence. 


i42  EDUCATION    OF    MaN. 

The  primary  virtues,  essential  to  the  existence 
of  society,  are  withdrawn  from  our  election  and 
choice,  nor  are  they  left  to  be  directed  only  by  so 
weak  a  principle  as  reason;  they  are  identified 
with  human  nature  by  the  dictates  of  creation. 
Submission  alone  to  the  indispensable  laws  of 
morality  is  left  to  our  choice.  In  doing  so  only 
can  we  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  Man- 
kind. 

Christianity  promises  future  rewards  for  every 
sort  of  righteousness,  such  being  the  will  of  the 
Creator.  But,  I  maintain  also,  that  morality  is 
necessary  in  this  life,  not  because  I  believe,  as 
many  do,  that  wicked  persons  are  tormented  by 
their  consciences,  a  notion  which  I  have  endea- 
voured to  explode  in  treating  of  the  faculty  and 
organ  of  Conscientiousness  in  the  first  vol.  or  in 
the  physiological  part  of  Phrenology;  but  be- 
cause I  really  think,  that  the  world  is  so  constitu- 
ted, that  morality  is  indispensable  to  the  general 
happiness  of  Mankind. 

It  is  objected,  that  the  just  often  perishes  in  his 
righteousness,  while  the  wicked  often  thrives  in 
his  iniquity;  but  shall  we  infer  from  this,  that 
morality  is  less  necessary  to  prosperity  than  I 
niaintain  ? 

The  condition  of  individuals  is  subordinate  to 
that  of  the  community.  On  the  other  hand,  one 
power  may  triumph  over  another  for  a  certain 


IMPORTANCE    OP    MORALITY.  143 

time,  and  the  animal  over  man  in  single  individu- 
als ;  but  such  a  state  cannot  become  general,  nor 
everlasting,  because  the  animal  powers,  from  their 
tendency  to  the  gratification  of  Selfishness,  would, 
if  predominant,  overset  society  ;  while  the  powers 
proper  to  Mankind,  are  eminently  conservative, 
and  calculated  to  promote  general  happiness. 

I  grant  also,  that  individuals  and  whole  nations 
will  perish,  if  they  make  use"  only  of  the  faculties 
proper  to  Man.  As  Jong  as  Mankind  remains  as  at 
present  constituted,  these  faculties  will  stand  in 
need  of  the  assistance  of  the  animal  powers,  to 
avoid  being  destroyed.  Society  must  still  be  pre- 
pared for  war  in  order  to  maintain  peace.  But 
history  furnishes  numerous  examples,  that  wherev- 
er mere  animal  faculties  have  governed,  the  sover- 
eignty did  not  last ;  morality  and  understanding 
being  the  two  first  principles  of  politics,  and  neces- 
sary to  direct  the  actions  of  every  faculty. 

I  am  sorry  to  observe,  that  generally  the  culti- 
vation of  the  understanding  constitutes  the  princi- 
pal object  of  education  ;  and  that  in  different 
countries,  the  pupils  of  public  establishments  smile 
with  pity  at  praise  given  for  good  behaviour.  I 
know  very  well,  that  children  of  excellent  conduct 
do  not- always  excel  in  intellect;  but  we  find  also, 
that  many  young  and  old  individuals  of  great  un- 
derstanding do  not  always  behave  as  they  ought 
to  do.     These  persons  often  convert  their  intellect 


144  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

into  scourges  of  society,  and  are  the  greatest  ene- 
mies to  the  happiness  of  the  race.  Let  the  public 
beware  of  this  in  reference  to  authors,  reviewers, 
pamphleteers,  gazetteers,  and  writers  of  any  kind. 
It  is  a  too  common  tendency  among  them  to  say  : 
I  and  my  friends  alone  have  understanding,  we 
alone  are  in  the  right. — Let  these  oracles  be  re- 
spected if  they  write  only  with  conscientiousness. 
Both  moral  and  intellectual  endowments  are  im- 
portant, and  therefore  ought  to  be  cultivated  in 
harmony.  By  neglecting  one  or  both,  societies 
and  even  nations  will  come  to  an  end. 

In  examining  Mankind  at  large,  we  shall  find 
that  general  happiness  is  founded  more  on  morali- 
ty than  on  intellect.  Public  establishments  for 
relieving  distress,  improving  morality  and  cor- 
recting manners,  are  more  beneficial  to  society 
than  colleges  for  the  study  of  mathematics  under 
the  government  of  conquerors.  Morality  ought 
to  be  the  aim,  and  understanding  but  a  means  of 
attaining  it.  Those,  however,  who  know  my 
ideas  on  the  primitive  powers  of  Man,  and  on 
their  moral  arrangement,  will  know  that  I  distin- 
guish morality  from  religious  creeds ;  that  my 
God  is  a  God  of  union,  who  wishes  to  save  and 
not  to  destroy  ;  and  that,  in  my  opinion,  charity, 
or  general  love,  is  the  greatest  of  virtues.  They 
will  perceive  that  I  do  not  agree  with  teachers 
who  place  the  love  of  their  country,  and  that  of 
glory,   above  the   love   of  Mankind;  and  that   I 


IMPORTANCE    OP    MORALITY.  145 

maintain  the  antliority  and  the  advantage  of  the 
Christian  principle,  which  conjmarjds  ns  to  love 
every  one  as  our  nei<?hbor.  Jesns  called  him  his 
brother  who  did  the  will  of  his  Father.  I  allow, 
that  we  owe  obligfations  to  our  parents,  and  to  our 
country  ;  indeed  I  admit  that  there  is  a  primitive 
feeling  of  attachment  to  all  beingrs  around  us.  But 
this  propensity  is  given  also  to  the  lower  animals, 
and  is  far  inferior  to  general  love.  He  who  con- 
siders the  wants  of  the  poor,  and  the  causes  of 
those  wants  ;  the  deserts  of  the  poor,  the  possi- 
bility and  necessary  means,  of  improving  their  sit- 
uation ;  who  will  never  encourage  idleness  and 
disorder  ;  who  considers  attachment  as  a  quality 
of  secondary  weight  ;  who  relieves  him  first  that 
deserves  it  best ;  and  who  prefers  his  countrymen, 
only  in  so  far  as  they  are  equally  meritorious,  is  far 
nobler  than  those  who  are  influenced  by  the  love 
of  their  country,  or  by  a  religious  creed  alone,  to 
the  neglect  of  this  universal  Benevolence. 

It  is  a  touchstone  of  superiority  among  the 
faculties  that  their  influence  is  more  universal. 
The  anitnal  feelings  contribute  to  the  preservation 
of  individuals,  of  societies,  and  in  a  certain  de- 
gree of  the  species.  Human  feelings  alone  place 
society  above  individuals,  and  species  above  so- 
cieties. They  coincide  with  the  proceedings  of 
nature.  Individuals  perish,  while  nations  con- 
tinue ;  and  these  disappear  while  mankind  is  pre- 
14 


146  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

served.     The  faculties  which  produce  such  effects, 
must  be  important  in  proportion. 

When  I  state  that  the  sphere  of  the  faculties 
proper  to  Man,  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  the 
animal  powers,  this  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  other  proposition;  that  a  facidty  is  more  or 
less  generally  bestowed  by  nature.  The  nieaning^ 
of  the  latter  is,  that  a  faculty  exists  in  a  greater  or 
smaller  number  of  species,  while  the  former  de- 
notes that  the  influence  of  a  faculty  extends  over 
more  beings.  Amativeness  is  very  general,  while 
Christian  charity  is  confined  to  Mankind  ;  but  the 
effect  of  this  hitter  feeling  embraces  all  beings, 
while  that  of  the  former  is  infinitely  more  limited- 

Thus,  in  all  actions,  Morality  is  to  be  kept  in 
view  as  the  aim  and  end.  Man,  by  superior 
powers,  is  the  lord  of  the  terrestrial  creation  ;  but 
the  sime  feelings  which  constitute  his  superiority 
command  him  not  to  abuse  other  beings.  A  lower 
propensity  excites  Man  to  kill  animals,  in  order  to 
live  on  them  ;  but  the  superior  feelings  forbid  us 
to  torment  them. 

All  sects  of  religion  must  agree  that  morality  is 
necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  human  race,  how- 
ever ditierent  their  opinions  may  be  about  the 
mode  of  attainhig  it.  But  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
declarimx  against  any  creed  that  undermines  chari- 
ty, and  which  teaches  children  that  those  who  do 


IMPORTANCE    OF    MORALITY.  147 

not  believe  as  they  themselves  do,  and  that  those 
who  wish  to  adopt  different  means  in  order  to 
please  their  Maker,  are  damned.  As  Christianity 
evidently  tends  to  unite  all  men  in  the  presence 
of  God,  it  appears  to  me  that  we  are  entitled  to 
reject  every  interpretation  of  any  passage  of  the 
Gospel  which  does  not  agree  with  general  peace. 
The  superiority  of  the  Christian  principles  of  mo- 
rality, is  proved  and  recommended  by  their  good 
effects  ;  and,  in  this  way,  belief  is  converted  into 
conviction. 

Modified  ideas  about  the  means  of  pleasing  God 
are  natural,  and  present  a  large  field  for  teaching 
tolerance  and  mutual  forbearance.  Various  for- 
malities are  considered  as  agreeable  to  God  ;  but 
history  informs  us,  that  many  of  these,  used  by 
different  sects,  are  borrowed  from  paganism. 
Every  one  ought  to  be  permitted  to  do  as  he  thinks 
right,  unlesks  the  general  happiness  of  Mankind  be 
disturbed  by  it.  I  think  that  he  is  too  proud 
who  believes  that  he  can  add  to,  or  exalt  the  hap- 
piness of  his  Creator,  to  whose  dictates  all  that 
man  can  do  is  to  submit.  In  submitting  to  his 
dictates,  we  practice  the  true  and  undefiled  re- 
ligion, viz.  in  this  way  we  show  that  we  are  tied 
to  God,  and  obey  his  will.  Thus,  it  is  an  important 
point,  in  teaching  religion,  never  to  confound  the 
aim  with  the  means.  The  former  is  universal  hap- 
piness, and  loving  our  neighbor  as  one's  self  The 
means  which  lead  to  jt  are  various,  and  differen- 


148  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ces  of  opinion  in  reg:ird  to  them  are  to  be  expected. 
It  seems,  however,  a  great  error  to  look  for  hap- 
piness from  Divine  influence,  while  the  natural 
means  of  prodncinsr  it,  appointed  by  the  Creator 
to  be  observed,  in  the  ordinary  way  of  Providence, 
are  neglected. 


CHAPTER  II. 

EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION. 

The  faculties  are  innate  and  active  in  different 
degrees  ;  but  e:ich  desires  to  be  satisfied,  and  all 
are  necessary  ;  hence  it  would  be  wrong  to  en- 
deavor to  annihilate  or  to  neglect  any  one  \i\  the 
institutions  of  society  ;  whilst  the  acts  of  every 
individual  power  may  be  morally  good  or  had, 
that  is,  conformable  or  contrary  to  the  whole  of 
the  faculties  proper  to  Man.  In  order  to  elucidate 
this  subject,  I  shall  make  first  a  few  general  re- 
marks, and  then  subjoin  some  details  concerning 
the  primitive  powers. 

In  the  greater  number  of  persons,  the  lower 
faculties  are  the  most  active,  and  several  of  them 
more  so  than  others.  This  explains  the  great  ac- 
tivity of  the  animal  nature  of  man.  Again,  single 
individuals,  each  of  the  sexes,  the  ifihabitants  of 
certain  provinces,  and  whole  nations,  possess  in- 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  149 

dividual  faculties  more  active  than  others.  These 
primitive  dispositions,  then,  must  first  be  studied, 
and  each  power  cultivated  in  harmony  with  the 
dictates  of  general  morality,  and  with  the  particu- 
lar situation  of  the  nation,  sex,  or  individual  in 
question.  Any  feeling  that  is  naturally  too  active, 
should  never  be  exerted.  Hence,  in  those  children 
and  nations,  whose  character  is  strongly  marked 
by  the  love  of  approbation,  this  feeling  should 
never  be  nourished  by  education.  For,  if  pre- 
dominant, it  becomes  the  cause  of  great  mischief, 
and  it  is  evidently  a  great  fault  to  encourage  it 
continually,  and  to  hold  out  approbation  and  glory 
as  the  principal  reward  of  every  action.  If,  among 
other  nations,  Self-esteein  be  the  strongest  feeling, 
it  should  not  be  encouraged.  Such  children  are 
to  be  accustomed  to  attend  to  what  others  say  of 
them,  and  to  be  spoken  to  freely  of  their  faults. 

On  the  other  hand,  no   strong  feeling  can  be 

overcome  at  once  ;  its  activity  will  appear  in  one 

way  or  another,  and  the  object  of  the  teacher  or 

governor  ought  to  be  to  make  the  best  use  of  it. 

The  love  of  approbation,  for  instance,  may  lead 

to  war  or  peace,  to  idleness  or  industry,  to  vice  or 

virtue,  according  to  the  object  approved  of  by  the 

directors.     It  is  the  same  with  every  fundamental 

power.     Has  not  every   crime   been   committed, 

and   every   virtue   exercised,  under   pretence  of 

glorifying    God,  or  of  obeying  God  rather   than 

men  > 

14* 


t66 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


The  improvement  of  mankind  has  been  greatly 
retarded  by  the  erroneous  notion  of  our  being 
born  alike  in  fcelins^s  and  understanding,  and  of 
our  being  capable  of  becoming  whatever  teachers 
please.  On  account  of  the  differences  in  the  in- 
nate faculties,  on  the  contrary,  education  must  be 
modified  in  many  respects  even  for  nations,  as  well 
as  for  individuals  and  sexes.  As  the  inhabitants  of 
cities  cannot  digest  the  food  on  which  savasres  will 
thrive,  so  civilized  nations  stand  in  need  of  princi- 
ples which  cannot  enter  into  the  brains  of  igno- 
rant and  uncivilized  persons.  There  are  many 
examples  in  history,  where  nations  have  been  un- 
grateful to  their  governors,  who  have  endeavour- 
ed to  improve  their  condition.  Missionaries,  who 
preach  to  ignorant  and  barbarous  tribes  in  the 
same  way  as  to  enlightened  people,  cannot  produce 
the  desired  effect.  New-born  children  cannot  bear 
too  much  light  at  once  ;  and  the  mind,  like  the 
eyes,  must  be  accustomed  by  degrees  to  new  im- 
pressions 

On  the  other  hand,  governments  are  wrong  if 
they  retard  the  attainment  of  the  degree  of  civili- 
zation which  their  nations  require.  They  are 
mistaken  in  thinking,  that  the  special  tendency  of 
primitive  faculties  can  be  prohibited  by  mere  com- 
mandment. As  no  institution,  having  for  its  ob- 
ject the  annihilation  of  amativeness,  acquisitive- 
ness, the  love  of  approbation,  or  any  other  feelings, 
given  by  the  Creator,  can  be  permanent ;  as  its 


£ACH    FACtJLtY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  151 

duration  will  be  shortened,  in  proportion  as  such 
feelings  are  more  active,  in  the  same  way,  as  soon 
as  our  understanding  is  arrived  at  a  higher  degree 
of  cultivation,  such  institutions  as  are  adapted  to 
dark  ages  will  no  longer  suffice. 

The  facidties  proper  to  Man  being  given  to 
govern  every  where,  are  to  be  cultivated  inces- 
santly, and  in  every  one,  whilst  the  powers  com- 
mon to  man  and  animals,  should  be  encouraged 
only  in  so  far  as  they  contribute  to  the  great  end 
of  the  satisfaction  of  the  properly  human  nature, 
or  to  general  happiness.  The  animal  Aiculties 
may  be  employed  as  means,  but  not  any  one 
should  become  the  aim  of  our  existence.  They 
may  do  good,  when  subordinate,  but  they  produce 
much  evil,  as  soon  as  their  gratification  becomes 
the  aim  of  life.  It  is  remarkable,  that  all  institu- 
tions, true  Christianity  excepted,  are  founded  on 
selfish  principles,  and  tliat  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  motives,  which  they  propose  to  man- 
kind, originate  in  the  animal  feelings. 

The  regulation  of  the  mode  in  which  gratifica- 
tions are  sought,  is  an  important  point  in  ediica- 
tion.  Each  faculty  when  active,  wishes  to  be  sat- 
isfied, and  will  excite  those  powers  which  may 
become  the  means  of  its  gratification.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  we  have  a  desire  to  be  distin- 
guished, we  may  fight,  destroy,  calculate,  culti- 
vate arts,  &c.  according  as  distinction  is  Ukely  to 


16^  EDUCATION    OF   MAN. 

follow  tho  perforiijance  of  such  and  snch  actions. 
To  g-aiii  eternal  happiness,  we  may  do  and  we  may- 
omit  various  things,  according  as  we  are  taught 
that  it  is  to  result  from  the  one  or  the  other. 
Selfishness,  in  general,  is  a  great  stimulus.  The 
gratification  of  individual  faculties  may  even  be- 
come a  means  of  obviating  their  abuses.  Acquisi- 
tiveness, for  instance,  may  be  prevented  from 
stealing  and  cheating,  &c.  by  placing  before  the 
mind  the  consequences  of  illegal  actions,  and  by 
showing,  that  the  best  calculated  selfishness  is  that 
which  is  combined  with  honesty. 

Though  it  is  a  pity,  that,  in  common  education, 
the  satisfaction  of  the  inferior  faculties  is  generally 
represented  as  the  aim  of  our  existence,  and  of  the 
whole  of  our  actions  ;  their  gratifications,  how- 
ever, may  be  of  great  use,  being  a  source  of 
pleasure,  and  the  contrary  a  punishment.  The 
idle  being  pleased  by  vacancy ;  the  dainty- 
mouthed  by  cakes  and  sweatmeats  ;  the  vain  by 
decorations,  fine  clothes,  titles,  and  every  kind  of 
showy  appearance  ;  the  mechanician  by  ingenious- 
ly contrived  instruments  ;  the  painter  by  colours. 
There  are  as  many  sorts  of  reward  or  punishment 
as  natural  gifts,  but  the  gratification  of  those  pow- 
ers which  are  not  requisite  to  our  profession, 
should  be  only  an  object  of  reward  and  recreation, 
the  difference  between  aim  and  means  being  con- 
stantly attended  to. 


EACH    FACULTY    TINDS    TO    ACTION.  153 

A  qnestif)n  which  h:^s  heen  often  repeated 
by  phiIos()})hers,  nny  he  hrought  in  here,  viz. 
Whether  it  is  better  to  have  many  or  few  wants  ? 
Want  is  here  synonymous  witli  Desire,  or  the  ten- 
dency of  individual  f iculties  to  seek  gratification  ; 
and  there  are  as  many  sorts  of  wants  or  desires  as 
there  are  primitive  powers. 

To  answer  this  question,  we  must  hear  in  mind, 
that  the  satisfaction  of  each  desire  gives  pleas\ire  ; 
that  there  are  as  many  sorts  of  pleasure  as  there 
are  faculties,  and  that  desires  and  pleasures  are 
proportionate  to  the  activity  of  the  powers  ;  more- 
over, that  the  pains,  displeasures,  or  states  of  dis- 
satisfaction, are  also  as  numerous  as,  and  propor- 
tionate to  the  arriivity  of,  the  fjculties.  Thus, 
wants  or  active  faculties  may  render  us  happy  or 
unhappy. 

In  order  to  prepare  happiness  for  ourselves,  let 
us  exercise  those  fuculties  which  we  have  the  pow- 
er of  gratifying  and  check  the  activity  of  those 
which  we  cannot  satisfy  ;  taking  constantly  for 
granted,  that  morality  is  the  aim  of  our  life,  and 
that  no  animal  power  shall  be  permitted  to  becouie 
predominant  ;  that  Ostentation,  for  instance,  must 
remain  subordinate  to  Justice,  and  that  spending 
our  superfluities  on  purposes  useful  to  society,  is 
preferable  to  employing  them  in  the  gratification 
of  any  animal  propensity. 


154  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

The  proper  employment  of  the  faculties  being 
so  iinportuiit,  this  knowledge  is  not  only  neces- 
sary to  teachers  and  g-overnors,  but  it  should  be- 
come an  object  of  instruction  for  every  person, 
and  be  taught  and  learned  by  heart. 

We  must  eat  and  drink,  because  we  nnist 
change  the  substance  of  our  body,  and  we.  are 
excited  to  do  so  by  hunger  and  thirst.  But  the 
laws  of  digestion  and  nutrition  might  be  explain- 
ed, the  respective  organs  shown,  and  the  necessity 
of  submitting  to  the  dictates  of  creation  taught. 
The  knowledge  of  the  general  rules  of  Hygeia  is 
useful  to  every  one.  Let  then  children  know, 
that  they  nuist  eat  to  live,  but  that  they  do  not 
live  to  eat  and  to  drink ;  let  them  feel  the  ad  van 
tages  of  sobriety,  and  the  consequences  of  indi- 
gestion ;  let  them  see  the  vice  of  gluttt)ny  and 
drunkenness  in  nature,  and  be  accustomed  to  tem- 
perance, and  to  the  moderate  use  of  every  sort  of 
food.  It  will  be  easy  to  render  them  attentive  to 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  aliments  necessary  to 
be  taken,  and  to  those  which  do  not  agree  with 
their  digestive  organs.  It  is  important  that  they 
should  be  able  to  resist  the  desire  to  eat  of  every 
dish  that  is  placed  on  the  table.  But  it  is  a  great 
fault  of  parents  and  teachers  to  preach  sobriety, 
and  themselves  to  give  a  contrary  example.  The 
exauiple  is  more  effectual  than  the  precept.  I 
think  it  is  also  wrong  to  give  dainties  and  liquors  to 
children  as  rewards,  for  it  is  in  this  manner  that 


F.ACH    FACULTY    TF.NDS    TO    ACTION.  155 

they  are  tniisrlit  to  value  them.  They  may  enjoy 
the  sense  of  taste,  but  they  ought  not  to  be  govern- 
ed by  it. 

In  speaking  of  hunger  and  thirst,  food,  beverage 
and  nutrition,  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  may  be 
given  to  children  at  table,  with  respect  to  the 
natural  history  of  the  three  kingdoms,  and  with 
respect  to  chemistry  and  physit)l()gy.  Parents 
might  direct  the  conversation  towards  convenient 
subjects,  and  enter  into  farther  explanatinns  after 
dinner.  Certaiidy  this  supposes  the  parents  them- 
selves to  be  well  iidbrmed,  which,  however,  is 
too  frequently  not  the  case.  The  duty  of  instriw- 
tion  devolves  particularly  on  the  mother  ;  but  to 
be  able  to  do  her  duty,  she  must  have  acquired 
notions  herself.  If  there  be  several  children,  the 
elder  may  assist  the  mother  in  informing  the 
younger. 

Is  not  the  great  curiosity  of  children  a  hint  of 
Nature,  that  they  ought  to  be  made  acquainted 
with  many  subjects  .'*  Why  then  do  we  not  rather 
cherish  than  suppress  it  ?  We  should  always 
answer,  even  when  questions  are  put  to  which 
delicacy  does  not  allow  us  to  reply.  In  such 
cases,  we  may  find  an  excuse  by  observing,  that 
they  are  not  yet  able  to  understand  the  thing. 
This  will  be  believed,  if  we  show  them  the  reality 
of  such  an  excuse  in  other  examples.  But  they 
must  never  be  told  they  ought  not  to  know  such 


156  "     EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

thing's.     A  formal    denial  will    excite  their  curi- 
osity. 

The  objects  which  concern  cookery,  eating*  and 
drinking",  and  play  things,  furnish  sufficient  mat- 
ter to  different  conversations.  We  may  put  ques- 
tions about  the  orig'in,\isefulness,  and  preparations 
of  aliments.  Each  object  will  offer  a  larg-e  field 
of  information.  I  suppose,  for  example's  sake, 
that  potatoes  are  placed  on  the  table,  the  mother 
may  ask,  To  what  king-dom  of  natural  history  do 
they  belong  ?  According*  to  the  age  of  the  chil- 
dren, various  questions  may  be  added.  After  the 
first  notions  are  communicated,  the  mother  may 
continue  to  inquire  about  the  parts  of  the  plant 
which  we  eat  under  the  name  Potatoes.  The  dis- 
cussion again  will  require  to  be  more  or  lefs  de- 
tailed, according"  to  the  capacities  of  the  children. 
Whatever  cannot  be  shown  at  home,  could  be 
noticed  on  taking"  walks  into  the  fields  or  else- 
where. In  what  country  are  potatoes  indigenous  ? 
Geography  will  come  in.  How  are  they  cidti- 
vated,  &c.  Then  notions  of  agriculture  may  be 
communicated. 

Another  time,  the  mother  may  begin  a  conver- 
sation concerning  bread.  Children  may  learn  the 
difference  between  rye,  wheat,  oats,  &c.  ;  the  man- 
ner of  grinding  corn,  of  baking  bread,  &c.  In 
this  way,  every  article  may  be  made  an  object  of 
instruction  and  amusement.     Children  will  learn 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  167 

ideas  and  combine  them  ;  they  will  know  every- 
thing around  them,  and  will  feel  a  desire  to  know 
it.  They  will  at  the  same  time  learn  to  think 
when  they  speak,  and  to  express  no  ideas  without 
reflecting  on  them. 

Bodily  exercise  is  another  important  point  in 
education.  Muscular  activity  is  greater  in  child- 
hood than  in  any  later  age.  It  is  necessary  to  the 
development  of  the  body  and  to  health.  To 
keep  children  quiet  is  acting  against  nature.  The 
body,  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties,  may  be 
exercised  at  the  same  time.  Playing  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  mere  change  of  occupation,  and  many 
things  may  be  taught  by  means  of  it  ;  to  dance, 
for  instance,  to  climb,  to  leap,  to  swim,  to  go  on 
horseback,  to  fence,  &c.  belong  to  a  true  plan  of 
education.  The  muscles  of  the  arms,  or  legs,  or 
trunk  may  be  exercised  according  to  the  utility 
of  such  exercise  in  any  future  situation,  or  accord- 
ing to  their  local  weakness.  All  gymnastic  amuse- 
ments serve  to  these  purposes.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood, that  bodily  exercise  ought  to  be  proportion- 
ate to  the  innate  strength  and  progressive  growth 
of  the  individuals,  and  not  beyond  the  innate  ca- 
pacity, since  in  that  case  the  misapplication  of  a 
principle  will  do  harm.  It  is  said,  that  Milo 
carried  on  his  shoulders  a  calf  day  by  day,  till  it 
was  full  grown. 


15 


158  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

On  the  play-ground,  children  may  be  made  ac- 
quainted with  a  great  number  of  objects,  their 
physical  qualities,  such  as  form,  dimensions, 
weight,  color,  distances,  phenomena  of  hydrau- 
lics, mechanics,  and  chemistry.  Nothing,  for  in- 
stance, is  more  easy  than  to  teach  what  is  called 
gravity,  affinity,  attraction.  Let  children  collect 
stones  of  different  specific  weight,  let  them  make 
figures  in  the  sand,  such  as  circles,  triangles, 
squares.  They  will  learn  such  notions  with  less 
pleasure  when  they  are  confined  to  the  benches. 
It  is  known,  that  girls,  in  amusing  themselves  with 
dolls,  exercise  many  faculties  necessary  to  their 
future  condition  in  life. 

The  external  senses  deserve  particular  attention. 
Though  they  are  not  sufficient  to  make  us  ac- 
quainted with  the  external  world,  they  are,  never- 
theless, indispensable  means  to  acquire  distinct 
perceptions.  Blind  and  deaf  persons  show,  how 
in  the  former  the  sense  of  touch,  and  in  the  latter 
that  of  sight,  can  be  improved.  For  those  who 
feel  an  aversion  to  touch  innoxious  insects,  for  in- 
stance, a  lizard,  a  frog,  a  crawfish,  or  even  velvet 
and  other  tactile  objects,  an  early  habit  of  doing 
so  is  advisable.  It  is  the  same  with  regard  to  a 
dislike  to  certain  smells,  tastes,  colors  or  sounds. 
The  ears  ought  to  be  exercised  to  bear  the  noise 
of  a  gun,  of  thunder,  &c. 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  159 

Children  ought  to  be  accustomed  to  speak  loud, 
and  to  pronounce  all  possible  sounds  and  articula- 
tions, even  those  of  such  foreign  languages  as  they 
will  be  obliged  to  learn  ;  for  almost  every  lan- 
guage has  its  particuliar  sounds  which  we  pro- 
nounce with  difficulty,  if  we  have  not  been  early 
accustomed  to  them.  Accordingly,  nations  who 
have  the  greatest  number  of  sounds  in  their  speech, 
learn  the  most  easily  to  pronounce  foreign  lan- 
guages, since  they  know  their  articulations,  by 
having  met-  with  similar  sounds  in  their  own  lan- 
guage. The  French  and  English  having  no  gut- 
tural sounds  in  their  language,  find  it  difficult  to 
imitate  them  in  the  German.  The  Germans,  on  the 
contrary,  who  have  not  sounds  of  j  and  v  of  the 
French,  or  ofth  in  the  English,  acquire  them  with 
difficulty.  The  inhabitants  of  Otaheite,  when 
trying  to  pronounce  the  name  of  Cook,  always 
fiaid  Toutou. 

As  to  the  internal  powers,  it  is  a  great  fault  m 
education,  to  think  exclusively  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  and  to  try  to  conduct  mankind  by  pre- 
cepts. It  never  should  be  forgotten,  that  children. 
as  well  as  adult  persons,  always  act  by  feelings, 
and  that  charity  and  justice  are  no  sciences,  and 
that  knowledge  is  not  virtue.  Precepts  alone 
have  no  more  effect  on  feelings  than  on  under- 
Btanding.  To  say,  be  just,  patient,  and  benevo- 
lent, will  neither  produce  nor  exercise  justice,  pa- 
tience, nor  benevolence,  any  more  than  we  should 


160  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

understand  mathematics,  chemistry  or  philosophy'^ 
if  we  were  only  exhorted  to  study  them.  Pre- 
cepts must  be  put  into  execution,  and  this  alone  is 
of  practical  use.  Two  ideas,  then,  must  be  well 
understood  ;  first,  that  the  faculties  which  give 
feelings,  and  those  which  constitute  intellect,  ex- 
ist independently  of  each  other ;  and,  secondly, 
that  they  act  in  different  degrees  of  force  in  chil- 
dren as  well  as  adults.  In  this  sense,  we  may  say, 
with  De  LA  MoTTE,  that  the  child  is  already  a 
man,  and  the  man  still  a  child.  It  is  the  same 
idea  which  De  la  Bruyere  on  characters  (T. 
II.  chap,  xi.)  has  detailed,  in  stating,  that  chil- 
dren, like  adults,  are  affectionate  or  selfish,  coura- 
geous or  timid,  candid  or  disengenuous,  lazy  or 
industrious,  benevolent  or  envious,  peaceable  or 
quarrelsome,  unsteady  or  persevering,  humble  or 
proud,  just  or  unjust.  The  powers  are,  indeed, 
the  same  in  children  and  adults  ;  they  are  onlj' 
applied  to  different  objects.  The  same  person, 
when  a  child,  may  be  jealous  or  envious  about 
sweetmeats,  and  when  adult,  about  places  of 
honor.  The  same  faculty  renders  a  child  self- 
willed,  a  boy  disobedient,  and  a  man  mutinous. 
Mr.  Combe  has  well  expressed  the  same  idea  ; 
"  The  child,"  says  he,  "  who  trembles  at  the 
threat  of  being  shut  up  in  a  dark  closet ;  who  ex- 
hibits to  us  with  delight  his  new.  suit  of  clothes  ; 
who  fights  about  a  marble  ;  or  who  covets 
his  neighbor's  top,  is  under  the  influence  of 
the  same  faculties,  which,  in  future  years,  may 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  161 

make  him  tremble  under  the  anticipation  of  a  fall 
of  stocks  ;  make  him  desire  to  be  invested  with  a 
star  and  garter  ;  contend  for  an  island  or  a  king- 
dom, or  lead  him  to  covet  his  neighbor's  proper- 
ty." (Essays  on  Phrenology,  p.  315.)  Hence 
the  individual  tendencies  must  be  observed,  im- 
peded, or  encouraged  and  directed.  A  young 
girl,  whom  I  knew,  was  prohibited  from  being 
imperious  to  servants  and  common  people  ;  she 
continued  to  amuse  herself  with  giving  orders  to 
such  of  her  playthings  as  represented  servants, 
and  with  scolding  them.  When  she  was  told  that 
she  committed  a  fault,  she  excused  herself  by  sayr 
ing,  that  it  was  merely  a  play.  But  the  parents 
were  intelligent  enough  not  to  confound  the  feel- 
ing of  self-esteem  with  any  object  of  its  satisfac- 
tion, and  this  amusement  was  equally  interdicted. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings  the  natural  lan- 
guage is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Have  the 
feeling  which  you  wish  to  inspire,  speak  its  nat- 
ural language,  and  you  will  impress  the  juve- 
nile minds.  Avoid  particularly  the  natural  ex- 
pressions of  the  inferior  affections,  as  of  anger, 
jealousy,  envy,  impatience,  &c.  In  showing  an- 
ger to  children,  you  give  a  practical  lesson.  Follow 
the  example  of  the  philosopher  who  said  :  I  should 
punish  you  if  I  were  not  angry. 

If  any  inferior  feeling  be  too  energetic,  it  is 

proper  to  avoid  every  circumstance  that  may  put 
15* 


162  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

it  into  action.  Accordingly,  never  vex  quarrel- 
some or  obstinate  children,  particularly  do  not  at 
length  yield  to  them  and  let  them  have  their  own 
way  ;  never  desire  such  children  to  do  what  is 
unjust ;  make  every  demand  on  them  quietly,  but 
never  yield. 

It  is  essential  to  know  which  faculties  assist 
each  other,  and  which  act  in  opposition,  in  order 
to  direct  the  actions  and  omissions  of  man.  At- 
tachrtient  will  generally  rest  on  objects,  men,  ani- 
mals or  things,  whereby  the  other  feelings  may 
be  satisfied  at  the  same  time,  or,  at  least,  not  pre- 
vented from  being  so.  It  is  assisted  by  mildness 
and  cautiousness.  Children  endowed  with  these 
feelings,  and  with  ideality  and  love  of  approbation 
in  a  high  degree,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  de- 
ceived in  their  dealings  with  man,  should  be  made 
acquainted  with  the  difference  of  men,  and  with 
the  various  motives  of  their  actions. 

Courage  is  not  given  to  indulge  quarrelsome- 
ness and  anger,  nor  to  effect  gratification  of  ven- 
geance. Its  aim  is  to  defend  what  is  absolutely 
just.  If  not  active  enough,  it  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged, not  only  by  words,  but  by  exposing  the 
individual  to  situations  which  may  appear  annoy- 
ing. Timid  children  will  become  less  fearful  by 
being  accustomed  to  society.  If  courage  be  too 
strong,  its  bad  consequences  may  be  shown  ;  and, 
according  to  circumstances,   attachment,   selfish- 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO  ACTION.  163 

ness,  the  love  of  approbation,  or  the  moral   feel- 
ings, may  be  opposed  as  motives  to  restrain  it. 

The  faculty  of  Firmness  greatly  assists  the  ac- 
tivity of  every  other  power,  but  it  also  produces 
many  disorders,  particularly  if  it  be  naturally 
strong  in  combination  with  large  self-esteem,  and 
if  parents,  in  order  to  form  the  character  of  their 
children,  as  they  say,  allow  them  the  gratification 
of  every  fancy.  Such  beings  are  exasperated  by 
the  least  resistance  in  future  life,  and  become  fre- 
quently unhappy.  Firmness  alone  will  never  proA 
duce  great  actions.  It  only  causes  the  active  fac-  ) 
ulties  to  persevere.  Hence  the  same  person  may 
persevere  m.uch  in  one  respect,  and  very  little  in 
another.  It  has  particular  influence  on  self-esteem, 
the  love  of  approbatian,  conscientiousness  and 
reverence.  Ideality  and  the  want  of  order  and 
time,  are  in  opposition  to  perseverance. 

The  direction  of  amativeness  and  of  the  reli- 
gious sentiments  is  of  prime  influence.  These 
feelings  appear  commonly  later,  sometimes,  how- 
ever, earlier  in  life. 

The  longer  the  difference  of  the  sexes  can  be 
concealed  from  children,  the  better.  But  as  soon 
as  children  are  inclined  to  abuse  their  persons,  let 
them  know  the  dreadful  consequences  of  such  a 
vice  on  the  whole  body,  and  on  the  manifestations 
of  the  mind.     Incalculable  mischief  is  done  to  in- 


164  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

dividuals  and  to  mankind  at  large  by  the  abuses 
of  amativeness.  Many  become  insane,  and,  in  nu- 
merous cases,  mind  and  body  are  ruined  and  all 
happiness  undermined,  by  its  disorderly  gratifica- 
tions. Parents  and  teachers  commonly  are  not 
watchful  enough  in  this  respect.  The  picture 
may  be  varied,  according  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
child,  and  to  the  bad  effects  which  are  already 
visible  in  him.  Every  thing  which  excites  ner- 
vous irritability,  and  accelerates  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  must  be  avoided.  Bodily  exercise, 
however,  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  sleep.  If  the  functions  of  propa- 
gation be  known,  the  influence  of  the  vice,  not 
only  on  him,  but  on  generations  to  come,  may  be 
detailed  Many  ideas  of  this  kind  are  mentioned 
in  books  on  physical  education.  I  refer  to  them, 
mentioning  again,  that  a  too  anxious  taciturnity 
of  parents  concerning  these  points,  will  rather  do 
harm  than  good,  because  the  propensity  is  innate 
and  acts  without  restraint,  if  its  destination,  and 
the  consequences  of  its  abuses,  be  not  clearly 
shown  to  children.  Being  informed  of  its  import- 
ance, they  will  more  readily  resist,  and  submit  to 
those  means  which  seem   necessary  to  restrain  it. 

The  regulation  of  the  religious  feelings  also  de- 
serves great  attention.  It  is  known  how  very  dif- 
ferent the  ways  of  worshipping  have  been,  from 
human  sacrifices  to  adoration  in  spirit  and  in  truth. 
It  is  remarkable  that  at  all   times   continency  has 


lEACtt    PACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  165 

been  considered  as  agreeable  to  God.  The  priests 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  avoided  wine  and  wives. 
The  Levites  were  forbidden  to  have  intercourse 
with  females  during  the  time  of  their  sacerdotal 
service.  In  Ceylon  and  Siam  the  priests  are  pro- 
hibited from  marrying.  The  Roman  Church  re- 
quires an  observance  of  a  similar  law. 

Religious  precepts  of  various  kinds,  and  the 
most  opposite  opinions,  when  proposed  as  the  will 
of  God,  have  been  listened  to.  The  majority  of 
mankind  is  credulous.  Say  that  it  is  necessary  to 
sacrifice  animals,  to  burn  perfume,  to  ring  bells,  to 
fast,  to  sing,  to  make  prostrations,  to  dance,  to 
whip  the  body,  or  to  do  various  other  things  In 
honor  of  God,  and  man  will  comply.  Even  those 
who  reflect  for  themselves,  and  admit  the  revela- 
tion of  Christian  principles,  will  differ  in  their  ex- 
plication of  them.  The  question,  then,  is  often 
put.  Who  can  decide  which  is  the  true  religion  ? 
As  the  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit,  so  is  the  man  by 
his  actions,  and  a  doctrine  by  its  effects.  I  think 
that  the  touchstone  of  every  principle,  religious 
and  moral,  is  the  same,  viz.  its  tendency  to  pro- 
mote the  glory  of  God  and  the  common  happi- 
ness of  mankind.  It  is  absurd,  and  even  blasphe- 
mous, to  hold  out  any  doctrine  as  coming  from 
God,  the  manifest  tendency  of  which  is  to  inflict 
evil.  I  adopt,  therefore,  only  that  explanation  of 
every  passage  of  Christianity  which  favors  gener* 
al  love. 


166  EDUCATION    OF    MAN* 

There  are  religious  people  who  agree  with  re^ 
spect  to  principles,  but  vary  as  to  the  particular 
application  of  them.  They  insist  nriuch  on  some, 
and  are  indifferent  about  other  points  ;  and  some- 
times follow  the  absurdities  of  their  own  imagina- 
tions ;  they  explain  one  passage  of  the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  its  spirit,  and  take  another  literally. 
Others  admit  the  principles,  and  say  that  they 
believe  in  them,  but  care  very  little  for  their  prac- 
tice ;  whereas  the  least  portion  of  intelligence  and 
honesty  might  enable  them  to  perceive,  that  the 
practice  is  better  than  the  mere  assertion  of  be- 
lief. 

in  religious  education,  as  well  as  iti  every  other 
sort  of  instruction,  three  things  are  particularly  to 
be  kept  in  view  ;  first,  The  objects  taught  must 
be  suitable  to  the  station  of  those  instructed  ; 
secondly,  the  knowledge  communicated  must  be 
applicable  ;  and,  thirdly,  The  necessary  means  for 
attaining  the  end  must  be  pointed  out  and  attend- 
ed to.  With  respect  to  the  first  point,  the  choice 
of  objects  to  be  taught,  there  can  be  little  difficul- 
ty in  deciding  between  the  advantages  of  commu- 
nicating a  knowledge  of  fabulous  tales  or  exam- 
ples of  moral  conduct  ;  of  teaching  habitual  char- 
ity or  vice.  Children  ought  to  be  taught  that 
moral  conduct  is  the  aim  and  end  of  their  exist- 
ence, and  that  morality  is  indispensable  to  the 
welfare  of  individuals  and  of  society.  And  mo- 
ralists, who  wish  for  the  improvement  of  mankind. 


BACK    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  167 

ought  not  to  reject  any  means  of  attaining*  that 
end,  except  those  which  have  been  tried  and  found 
ineffectual  ;  but  these  should  be  given  up,  of  what- 
ever date  and  authority  they  may  be.  and  only 
those  that  prove  useful  be  employed. 

Thus,  all  powers  should  be  directed  with  a  view 
to  practical  life,  the  intellectual  faculties  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  positive  knowledge,  and  the  feelings 
to  the  promotion  of  the  general  welfare. 

There  is  another  great  error  committed  in  many 
schools  of  England,  viz.  the  third  part  of  the  year 
is  given  up  to  idleness.  This  may  be  necessary, 
because  the  objects  to  be  taught  are  few^  and  be- 
cause the  faculties  employed  are  fatigued,  and  re- 
quire rest  or  vacation-days  ;  but  these  might  be 
filled  up  by  the  useful  employment  of  other  facul- 
ties, which  could  be  exercised  one  after  another. 
In  that  way  more  knowledge  would  be  acquired, 
and  sufficient  time  allowed  for  relaxation  to  the 
individual  faculties. 

Natural  history,  mechanical  and  chemical  ex-^ 
periments,  are  well  suited  to  the  capacities  of 
youth,  and  would  delight  many  ;  architecture, 
painting,  music,  geography,  theatrical  perform- 
ances, &c.  would  please  others.  No  better  recre- 
ation would  be  wished  for.  The  great  error  is, 
that  all  children  are  obliged  to  learn  the  same 
things  ;  the  boys  Latin   and  Greek,  and  the  girU 


168  EDUCATION  OF    MAN. 

music  and  drawing.  Yet  out  of  the  prodigious 
number  of  girls  who  learn  these  arts,  how  few  are 
there,  who,  after  they  become  mistresses  of  their 
own  time,  and  after  they  have  the  choice  of  their 
own  amusements,  continue  to  practice  them  for  the 
pure  pleasure  they  afford.  Even  those  who  take 
pleasure  in  good  music,  are  better  pleased  with 
hearing  others  than  in  performing  themselves. 
How  often  are  the  labors  of  years,  and  the  expen- 
diture of  large  sums  of  money,  lost  in  this  way  ? 
What  a  pity,  that  we  are  obliged  to  learn  so  many 
things  for  no  end  biit  to  forget  them  ' 

Accomplishments  in  general  are  not  sufficiently 
distinguished  from  necessary  and  useful  instruc- 
tion. The  latter  is  often  neglected,  and  things 
are  taught  for  which  children  have  no  taste,  such 
as  drawing  and  music,  while  they  never  would 
take  a  pencil  in  their  hand  nor  play  a  tune  from 
choice.  How  glad  are  they,  therefore,  when  the 
time  for  lessons  and  masters  is  over,  when  they 
are  of  age,  and  their  education  is  finished.  Many 
women,  possessed  of  such  accomplishments,  never 
touch  the  heart  of  a  man.  They  have  learnt 
many  things  except  those  they  ought  to  know. 
They  find  a  partner  only  for  their  money,  but  the 
result  of  such  a  union  is  daily  seen.  Leisure  time 
alone  should  be  filled  up  by  accomplishments,  and 
whoever  does  not  cultivate  them  from  his  own 
impulse,  should  not  cultivate  them  at  all. 


EACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO    ACTION.  169 

Order  is  of  great  importance  in  our  aftairs. 
Children  ought  to  be  accustomed  to  take  care  of 
whatever  belongs  to  them,  and  young  females 
should  be  exercised  in  keeping  the  family-accounts. 
Order  does  not  depend  only  on  the  understanding, 
but  it  requires  also  experience.  This  cannot  be 
infused  into  the  mind  by  precept,  but  must  be 
acquired  by  practice.  Every  one  should  learn  to 
employ  his  own  powers,  and  to  regulate  his  own 
conduct,  and  for  that  purpose  he  should  be  placed 
into  various  situations,  and  left  to  his  own  re- 
sources. This  is  particularly  necessary  to  boys. 
Girls  are  more  dependent,  and^  in  many  respects, 
they  may  be  accustomed  to  trust  to  the  experience 
of  others,  and  to  conform  to  the  customs  of  society. 
They  must  be  more  reserved  in  manners  and  in 
their  moral  conduct,  because  their  faults  are  of 
greater  consequence  than  those  of  boys  to  their 
station  in  society ;  for  repentance  and  tears  will 
not  wash  out  the  errors  and  immoral  conduct  of 
girls.  On  the  other  hand  however,  prudery  should 
be  avoided  with  the  same  carefulness,  and  not  be 
confounded  with  delicacy  and  modesty. 

Delicacy  of  sentiment  and  refined  manners  are 
a  great  ornament,  and  ought  always  to  be  cultiva- 
ted. All  odd  motions  or  attitudes,  and  awkward 
gestures,  should  be  watched,  and  prevented  from 
becoming  habitual. 


16 


170  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

The  reflecting  faculties  deserve  particular  care. 
Let  children  be  taught,  if  possible,  to  understand 
what  they  say  and  do,  and  to  express  their  own 
ideas  with  precision.  I  have  already  mentioned, 
that  those  persons  are  mistaken,  who  think  that 
reasoning  can  be  improved  only  by  one  sort  of 
study,  such  as  of  language  or  mathematics.  The 
fact  is,  that  studying  any  branch  accurately,  ap- 
plying judgment  to  it,  and  reflecting  on  the  rela- 
tions of  Cause  and  Effect  which  it  exhibits,  will 
cultivate  the  reasoning  powers  with  equal  efl*ect. 
Comparison  and  Causality  are  necessary  in  impor- 
tant and  in  trifling  things.  If  children  have  great 
difficulty  in  reasoning,  the  first  attempt  here,  as 
in  every  other  branch,  is  the  most  difficult  part  of 
the  work.  We  should  therefore  allow  them  time 
to  reflect,  and  wish  that  they  should  rather  ac- 
quire one  distinct  idea,  than  many  confused  no- 
tions of  different  things. 

The  erroneous  method  of  instruction  generally 
pursued,  is  the  cause  why  many,  when  at  the  end 
of  their  school-education,  must  become  their  own 
teachers.  Those  who  have  not  talent  or  courage 
enough  to  do  so,  remain  within  the  circle  of  me- 
diocrity, and  are  mere  followers  in  the  paths  of 
others.  Yet  copying,  or  merely  imitating  others, 
is  the  death  of  arts  and  sciences. 

I  conclude  this  Chapter  with  repeating,  that 
isach  faculty  tends  to  act ;  that  each  faculty  may  be 


MOTIVES    OF    ACTIONS.  171 

used  and  abused;  that  all  faculties  ought  to  be 
employed  in  augmenting  the  common  happiness ; 
and  that  moral  conduct  and  reflection  are  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  producing  it ;  but  that  precepts 
alone  will  not  change  and  improve  mankind. 
Their  influence  is  little  in  comparison  to  that  of 
social  intercourse.  The  manners  of  the  world, 
the  spirit  of  families  and  of  parties,  customs  and 
received  opinions,  are  often  opposite  to  those 
which  we  are  taught  at  school.  We  hear  sobriety 
praised,  and  in  our  families  we  find  luxury  ;  disin- 
terested conduct  is  highly  spoken  of  in  our  books, 
but  we  live  in  the  midst  of-  a  crowd  of  busy 
creatures,  whose  most  anxious  thoughts  are  direct- 
ed towards  gain  and  vanity ;  and  we  observe,  that 
respect  and  consideration  are  paid  to  others  in 
proportion  to  their  wealth,  idleness,  privileges, 
and  fanciful^  nay  selfish  distinctions.  School 
education  is  then  soon  forgotten.  Whoever,  there- 
fore, has  an  influence  on  society,  let  him  contri- 
bute all  in  his  power  to  cause  the  same  spirit  to 
prevail  in  education,  in  legislation,  in  social  inter 
course,  in  writings,  in  arts,  and  in  sciences. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THERE    IS    NO   ACTION    WITHOUT    A    MOTIVE. 

The  principle  that  no  action  takes  place  with- 
out a  motive,  is  the  same  as  that  there  is  no  effect 


112  EDUCATION    OF    MaH. 

without  a  cause,  and  the  law  af  causation  exists  in 
the  moral  as  well  as  the  physical  world.  Yet  the 
nature  of  the  motives  of  our  actions,  and  their  ori- 
gin, are  not  sufficiently  understood. 

As  long  as  it  is  believed  that  education  can  cre- 
ate faculties,  the  whole  of  mankind  will  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  and  the  same  motives  will  be 
proposed  to  all  men.  But  when  we  know  the  in- 
fluence of  innate  dispositions,  we  perceive  the  ne- 
cessity of  having  recourse  in  each  person  to  his 
natural  powers,  and  of  fortifying  or  guiding  them 
by  cultivation. 

I  here  repeat,  that  our  feelings,  inferior  and  su- 
perior, furnish  the  principal  motives  of  our  actions, 
that,  in  consequence,  the  motives  are  different  like 
the  faculties  themselves ;  but  that  the  proper  aim 
or  object  of  our  actions  is  only  one.  I  take  it  also 
for  granted,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  faculties 
proper  to  man  is  the  aim  of  his  existence ;  since 
they  alone  constitute  moral  rectitude,  and  general 
happiness,  and  submission  to  the  laws  of  creation. 

The  superior  faculties,  when  they  act  by  them- 
selves from  their  internal  energy,  do  so  with 
pleasure,  and  constitute  the  kingdom  of  love.  But, 
whenever  they  must  be  excited  in  any  way,  or 
v/hen  the  energy  of  the  inferior  faculties  requires 
to  be  moderated  or  restrained,  then  government 
and  obedience,  or  the  rule  of  the  law,  begins.     As 


MOTIVES    OF    ACTIONS.  173 

the  inferior  faculties,  however,  exist  in  human  na- 
ture, and  stand  in  need  of  constant  regulation,  it  is 
evident,  that  Jesus,  in  His  own  person  fulfilled  the 
law  and  could  not  abolish  it.  Its  existence  was 
the  will  of  His  heavenly  Father,  and  the  constitu- 
tion  of  human  nature  evidently  requires  it. 

The  motives  arising  from  the  superior  faculties 
of  man,  are  also  termed  Religious  and  Moral ;  re- 
ligious^ as  far  as  we  stand  in  relation  to  God  as 
governor  and  ruler ;  and  morale  in  so  far  as  it  is 
our  duty  to  act  in  such  or  such  a  manner  with  re- 
spect to  mankind. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  our  Maker  has 
bound  us  by  laws  which  must  be  obeyed.  These 
laws  are  established  by  the  Creator,  and  have  been 
confirmed  by  revelation.  Man  is  a  moral  being, 
and  the  law  of  his  natural  morality  has  been  con- 
firmed by  Jesus.  This  matter,  exercising  the 
greatest  influence  on  the  happiness  of  Man,  is  con- 
sidered, with  details,  in  my  work  on  the  Philo- 
sophical Principles  of  Phrenology. 

Children   may   soon   be   made   to   comprehend 

that  they  cannot  change  the  laws  of  nature,  and 

to  see  the  necessity  of  submitting  to  them.     When 

they  understand  the  tendency  of  these  laws,  they 

will  feel  respect  and  veneration  for  that  Almighty 

Being  who  instituted  them,  and  for  His  all-wise 

appointments.     But  it  will  be  a  matter  of  greater 
16* 


174  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

difficulty  to  make  every  one  comprehend  and  hon- 
estly love  the  general  good  as  the  aim  of  our  ex- 
istence, though  it  is  conformable  equally  to  the 
law,  natural  and  revealed.  The  desire  for  the 
common  welfare  of  mankind,  is  not  strong  enough 
in  man,  to  allow  us  to  depend  on  it  as  a  sufficient 
/motive  of  self-direction,  and,  accordingly,  various 
means  have  been,  and  still  must  be  employed,  in 
,  order  to  direct  our  actions  towards  this  point.  A 
'  knowledge  of  the  different  motives  of  our  actions, 
then,  is  indispensable.  If  the  moral  law  be  writ- 
ten in  the  heart  of  a  man,  that  is,  if  the  faculties 
of  conscientiousness.  Benevolence,  and  Reverence 
be  naturally  most  powerful  in  any  person,  let  us 
appeal  to  them.  If  another  be  more  disposed  to 
obey,  because  it  is  commanded  by  the  revealed 
law,  that  is,  if  his  Hope  and  Marvellousness  be 
naturally  the  most  powerful  faculties,  let  us  not 
reject  these  motives.  The  same  aim  is  to  be  at- 
tained, but  the  means  may  vary. 

If  the  superior  motives  of  man; — his  natural 
charity,  his  religious  faith,  and  his  reasoning 
powers  are  not  sufficient  to  direct  his  actions,  in- 
ferior motives  must  be  employed,  such  as  love  of 
approbation,  acquisitiveness,  reward  and  punish- 
ment, fear,  &c.  Many  persons  are  prevented 
from  stealing,  through  the  criminal  code,  or  the 
fear  of  hell,  or  of  being  dishonored. 


MOTIVES    OF    ACTIONS.  175 

The  kingdom  of  fear  and  selfishness  is  infinitely- 
more  extensive  than  that  of  love.  The  former 
has  existed,  exists,  and  will  long  continue  to  exist, 
but  the  latter  cannot  come,  as  long  as  selfishness 
and  the  love  of  approbation  are  presented  as  the 
aim  of  our  conduct.  While  these  are  considered 
as  the  objects  of  human  existence,  conquerors  will 
prevail  over  their  satellites,  like  Brennus,  who 
sent  wine  from  Italy  to  his  countrymen,  saying, 
If  you  like  this  wine,  come  and  help  me  to  con- 
quer the  country  where  it  grows. 

It  is  essential  for  a  teacher,  or  any  one  who  di- 
rects others,  to  know  that  different  motives  may 
produce  the  same  action  in  different  persons. 
One  child  may  behave  well  through  attachment 
to  his  parents ;  another  through  fear,  or  the  love 
of  approbation  ;  a  third  through  selfish  views,  or 
a  feeling  of  duty. 

Moreover,  it  ought  to  be  kept  in  view  as  a 
principle  in  moral  and  intellectual  education,  that 
children  do  many  things  by  mere  imitation.  They 
often  adopt  the  manner  of  thinking  and  acting  of 
those  with  whom  they  live.  They  consider  as 
good  that  which  they  hear  praised  and  see  done 
by  their  parents.  For  this  reason  we  know  by 
the  children  whether  we  are  liked  or  disliked  in  a 
family.  This  propensity  to  imitate  will  produce 
most  effect  in  children  whose  natural  character  is 
not  very  determinate,  and  in  them  it  may  be  ap 


176  EDUCATION   OP   MAN. 

plied  with  advantage  as  a  means  of  instruction. 
Parents  therefore  become  the  best  moral  teachers  ; 
but  let  their  moral  conduct  agree  with  their  pre- 
cepts, if  they  expect  to  produce  any  effect  by  their 
teaching.  If  they  show  in  words  an  abhorrence 
of  vice,  let  not  their  actions  be  stained  by  impuri- 
ty. When  they  teach  their  children  to  avoid  bad 
company,  and  to  esteem  virtue  and  excellence 
above  the  distinctions  of  wealth  and  rank,  let 
them  not  be  encircled  themselves  in  fashion  and 
vanity.  If  they  exhort  them  to  order,  truth,  can- 
dor, and  charity,  let  them  prove  their  sincerity  by 
♦heir  own  actions. 

Many  children,  at  an  early  age,  are  capable  of 
feeling  arguments,  but  several  cannot.  Parents 
and  teachers  should  be  always  just  and  reasonable 
in  what  they  require  of  them,  and  then  never  yield 
to  any  resistance  or  remonstrance  whatever  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  (  A  habit  of  submission  is  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  the  moral  improvement  of 
children.  \ 

Children,  however,  as  well  as  adults,  like  what 
is  conformable  to  their  natural  dispositions.  If 
their  intellectual  powers  are  very  active,  they  may 
be  allowed  to  follow  their  dictates,  and  to  deter- 
mine even  their  own  future  situation  in  life.  But, 
if  parents  wish  to  bring  them  up  to  professions 
which  they  themselves  prefer,  and  not  according 
to  the  natural  gifts  of  the  children,  or  if  children 


MOTIVES    OF    ACTIONS.  177 

are  not  distinguished  by  their  talents,  they  must 
be  encouraged,  by  various  means,  and  sometimes 
even  forced,  to  exertion,  and  to  make  a  choice  of 
employment.  Without  this,  many  children  would 
become  careless  and  idle.  It  becomes  necessary  to 
impose  tasks  v^rhenever  the  natural  dispositions 
do  not  induce  children  to  attain  the  knowledge  re- 
quisite for  their  profession.  It  is  always  an  error 
to  allow  idleness  and  free  hours  as  a  reward,  be- 
cause such  a  proceeding  implies  that  learning  is  a 
punishment.  It  is  not  very  judicious,  either,  to 
conduct  education,  so  that  kings'  birth-days  and 
holydays  are  liked,  because  they  exempt  children 
from  attending  school.  This  is  nearly  as  bad  in 
principle,  as  compelling  them  to  learn  verses  or 
write  versions  by  way  of  punishment.  Certainly 
a  better  mode  of  chastisement,  if  necessary,  might 
be  found.  This  kind  of  punishment  is  similar  to 
that  inflicted  by  some  priests,  who  as  a  penance 
command  a  repetition  of  certain  prayers. 

The  question  concerning  emulation  and  its  use- 
ful or  dangerous  influence  is  discussed  among  in- 
stitutors.  Some  prove  its  good,  others  blame  its 
bad  consequences.  It  is  founded  on  a  strong  fun- 
damental  feeling  on  the  love  of  distinction  or  ap- 
probativeness,  which  may  be  used  or  abused. 
Those  who  have  certain  powers  very  strong  are 
pleased  with  their  gratification,  they  do  not  want 
any  other  motive.  But  emulation  may  become 
an  excitement,  of  any  feeling  as  well  as  intellectual 


178  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

power.  It  is  a  great  stimulus  for  children  to  learn 
their  lessons,  but  as  its  influence  is  so  great  in  so- 
ciety and  the  cause  of  numberless  disorders,  and 
as  it  is  so  much  cultivated  in  social  relations,  I 
find  it  advisable  to  omit  it  entirely  in  school  edu- 
cation. At  all  events  no  praise  should  be  be^ 
stowed  except  on  talent  and  virtue.  It  certainly 
should  be  better  if  we  could  think  that  in  doing 
all  that  which  is  to  be  done  we  do  merely  our 
duty. 

Selfishness  iand  approbativeness  act  with  the 
tnost  different  appearances,  according  to  their  com- 
binations with  other  faculties,  and  to  external  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  known,  and  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, that  their  activity  has  been  considered,  by 
some  philosophers,  as  sufl^icient  to  explain  all  the 
actions  of  men,  and  even  as  the  source  of  superior 
talents.  Indeed,  whenever  we  omit  any  thing,  in 
order  to  gain  any  earthly  or  heavenly  enjoyment, 
selfishness  is  active  ;  and  whenever  we  wish  to  be 
approved  of,  the  love  of  approbation  comes  into 
play.  The  tendencies  of  these  two  powers  are 
easily  distinguished  in  children  ;  but  I  repeat,  that 
their  preponderance  produces  great  mischief  in 
society  ;  that  they  are  too  much  cultivated  in  com- 
-mon  education,  and  that  it  is  an  error,  the  evil 
consequences  of  which  are  incalculable,  to  repre- 
sent them  as  the  chief  aim  of  our  existence,  while 
they  ought  to  be  only  secondary  motives.  I  have 
seen  child^ei>  endowed  with  a  great  deal  of  pride 


MOTIVES    OF    ACTIONS.  179 

and  love  of  approbation,  who  became  quite  in- 
toxicated by  being  praised,  and,  certainly  from 
this  excitement,  committed  new  faults,  and  some* 
times  became  intolerable  for  several  days. 

Let  us  examine  with  some  more  details  whether 
selfishness  and  the  love  of  approbation  produce 
talents  ;  and  whether  the  satisfaction  of  these  two 
feelings  should  be  the  aim  of  all  our  actions  ?  Is 
it  true,  that  arts  and  sciences  originate  and  im- 
prove in  proportion  as  they  are  patronized  by 
pecuniary  rewards  and  honor  ?  In  Greece,  the 
masterpieces  of  poetry,  eloquence,  history,  and 
philosophy,  were  not  the  result  of  patronage. 
The  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great  encou- 
raged the  learned,  yet  sciences  lost  their  grandeur 
and  originality.  Only  commentaries,  compila- 
tions, and  imitations,  became  numerous.  In  read- 
ing history,  we  meet  with  many  great  men  who 
found  their  reward  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences 
and  the  arts  themselves,  and  who  were  even  per- 
secuted on  their  account.  Many  others  have  per- 
severed in  contributing  to  the  improvement  of  arts 
and  sciences,  only  until  they  met  with  rewards 
and  honors ;  and  it  was  fortunate  if  this  did  not 
happen  too  soon,  as  it  appeared  they  worked  only 
for  them,  and  became  idle  when  their  aim  was 
attained. 

If  individuals,  because  they  possess  some  talents, 
are  to  receive  the  privilege  of  deciding  on  the 


180  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

value  of  every  scientific  production,  their  eleva- 
tion to  distinction  becomes  a  great  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  arts  and  sciences,  because  the  learned 
themselves  are  not  free  from  selfish  passions,  and, 
like  the  vulgar,  are  ready  to  hinder  others  from 
attaining  similar  enjoyments  and  honors.  Few- 
are  disposed  to  acknowledge  the  superiority  of 
others 

As  the  great  maxim  of  a  liberal  government  is, 
Let  them  act,  so  the  true  patronage  consists  in  not 
preventing  talents  from  exercising  themselves,  as 
long  as  absolute  justice  towards  mankind  is  not  in- 
jured ;  in  rewarding  productions  according  to  their 
influence  on  the  general  welfare,  and  in  reward- 
ing only  services  actually  performed.  Among  the 
abuses  concerning  rewards  and  distinctions,  I  men- 
tion only  the  fault  to  give  to  regular  professors 
the  exclusive  right  of  teaching,  and  what  is  still 
worse,  to  permit  them  to.  delegate  their  duties  to 
any  substitute  they  may  choose.  Monopoly  im- 
pedes improvement  in  every  thing.  If  the  ser- 
vices of  a  professor  be  useful  to  society  in  other 
avocations,  and  he  cannot  attend  to  his  scientific 
pursuits,  his  professorship  ought  to  be  transferred 
to  the  person  who,  next  to  him,  cultivates  that 
branch  with  pleasure  and  success. 

It  is  certain  that  reward  and  distinction  do  not 
produce  talents,  though  they  are  of  great  weight 
in  exljiting  and  directing  the  actions  of  all  the 


£ACH    FACULTY    TENDS    TO   ACTION.  181 

faculties.  I  even  infer  from  history,  that  man- 
kind will  suffer,  and  that  all  institutions  will  re- 
main imperfect,  as  long  as  selfishness  and  glory 
are  the  aim  of  our  actions ;  or,  in  other  words,  as 
long  as  places  are  looked  for  with  a  zeal  in  pro- 
portion to  the  profit  they  bring,  and  to  the  dis- 
tinction they  bestow  on  the  possessor,  whilst  all 
our  actions  ought  to  tend  to  the  common  benefit 
and  honor  of  mankind.  Nothing  but  the  place 
we  occupy  in  society,  and  fitness  for  its  duties, 
should  give  distinction.  It  should  be  considered 
as  every  man's  duty,  to  do  all  that  he  is  capable  of 
doing  for  the  general  happiness  of  those  among 
whom  he  lives.  Private  interest,  when  exclusive- 
ly pursued,  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  morality. 
Whoever  contends  for  it  as  the  chief  aim  of  our 
existence,  acts  after  the  impulse  of  his  animal  na- 
ture;— he  is  not  a  man. 

Selfishness,  it  is  true,  has  greatly  contributed  to 
abolish  various  kinds  of  injustice,  for  every  one  is 
ready  to  resist  his  oppressor.  In  religious  and 
civil  legislation,  privileges  are  more  and  more 
limited,  and  the  rights  of  man  become  more  equal 
than  they  were  in  ancient  times.  We  no  longer 
believe  that  all  mankind  is  made  for  the  sake  of  a 
few.  Indeed,  as  long  as  there  is  any  thing  ta 
gain,  there  will  be  many  who  will  contend  for  in- 
dependence, out  of  mere  selfishness ;  but  the  princi- 
ple from  which  they  act,  though  hitherto  auxiliary 
to  the  common  good,  cannot  be  applauded ;  for  it 
17 


182  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

would  lead  them  to  tyrannize  in  their  turn,  if  they 
had  the  power. 

Mankind  cannot  become  happy,  if  selfishness 
be  not  replaced,  or  at  least  mitigated,  by  a  supe- 
rior motive  of  action.  He  who  pursues  his  own 
advantage  only,  so  far  as  he  can  do  so  without  in- 
juring another,  is  just;  he  who  gives  up  his  su- 
perfluity rather  than  to  do  harm  to  another,  is 
noble  ;  he  who  works  only  for  the  common  wel- 
fare is  the  most  noble,  and  no  one,  but  him,  de- 
serves that  name. 

A  great  step  towards  perfection,  would  be  the 
full  and  practical  admission  of  the  principle  that 
every  one  has  the  right  to  employ  his  talents  to 
the  utmost  for  his  own  benefit,  as  far  as  he  can  do 
it  without  injuring  others.  This  system  of  gov- 
ernment is  certainly  far  superior  to  that  of  exclu- 
sive privileges  of  any  kind  : — Many  battles,  how- 
ever, will  be  fought  betwixt  selfishness  and  bigotry 
on  the  one  hand,  and  reason  and  sound  morality 
on  the  other,  before  it  is  generally  admitted  and 
followed. 

It  must  be  added,  however,  that  the  adoption 
even  of  this  principle  cannot  be  expected  to  obviate 
misery,  nor  luxury,  with  all  its  fatal  consequences, 
for  this  simple  reason,  that  the  natural  endow- 
ments of  individuals  are  very  different,  and  that 
those  who  have  more  talents  will  govern  the  others 


fcACH    FACULTY    TENDS   TO    ACTION.  183 

in  one  way  or  another.  While  selfishness  con- 
tinues to  be  the  motive  of  their  actions,  the  highly 
gifted  will  employ  the  weak  to  advance  their  own 
ends.  The  poor  will  be  constantly  dependent  on 
the  rich,  and  will  serve  them  as  the  only  thing 
they  can  do  to  live.  Supremacy  will,  of  neces- 
sity, fall  on  single  individuals.  Nations  also, 
through  selfishness,  interfere  with  each  other,  and 
War  becomes  unavoidable.  The  fortunate  com- 
mander finds  satellites  whose  advantagre  it  is  to 
serve  him,  as  workmen  serve  the  manufacturer  ; 
he  avails  himself  of  their  talents,  and  tells  his 
countrymen  that  peace,  and  obedience  to  his  will, 
are  essential  to  their  happiness.  Is  not  this  the 
state  of  Man  as  far  as  history  informs  us  ?  And 
this  must  continue  to  be  his  state,  wherever  per- 
sonal welfare  is  the  only  rule  of  conduct.  Tyran- 
ny causes  revolutions  ;  revolutions,  again,  are  pro- 
ductive of  tyranny  ;  and  all  this  has  its  origin  in 
selfishness.  There  is  no  possibility  of  changing 
this  permanent  circle  of  events  in  mankind,  ex- 
cept by  subordinating  private  interest  to-  common 
advantage. 

This  doctrine  is  not  new,  it  is  the  basis  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  it  has  been  dreadfully  abused  at  dif- 
ferent times,  even  by  pretended  teachers  of  mo- 
rality. It  is  no  where  practised  in  its  full  vigor, 
and  happy  is  the  nation  whose  governors  follow  it 
even  in  a  limited  degree.  But  it  ought  at  least  to 
be  generally  propagated,  and  its  good  effects  shown 
to  every  one  who  is  capable  of  appreciating  them. 


^84  Education  Of  man. 

The  difference  of  motives  does  not  only  exist 
in  children,  but  also  in  adults,  and  whoever  wishes 
to  determine  different  individuals  to  the  same  con- 
duct, must  appeal  to  different  faculties  of  the  mind. 
He  must  follow  the  example  of  the  great  apostle, 
who  became  all  things  to  all  men,  in  order  to  save 
them.  Whoever  has  only  one  motive  of  salvation 
to  propose,  will  never  keep  all  mankind  together, 
and  whoever  wishes  to  move  strongly  must  appeal 
to  the  feelings.  Experience  however  shows  that 
few  persons  can  be  guided  by  the  superior  feelings 
alone,  and  that  reasoning  is  seldom  of  any  great 
weight  as  a  motive  of  conduct  ;  it  is  also  obvious, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  the  greater  number  of  per- 
sons are  actuated  by  inferior  motives,  and  even  by 
commandment  and  by  fear.  Yet  I  would  recom- 
mend, that  the  propriety  of  making  use  of  all  pos- 
sible inducements  to  produce  virtuous  conduct 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  view,  and  that  every 
motive  should  be  employed,  beginning  with  the 
most  noble  and  elevated  with  morality  and  reason, 
and  ending  with  the  lowest,  with  fear  and  impress 
sions  on  the  sense  of  feeling,  and  the  sensations 
of  hunger  and  thirst.  We  may  reason  with  those 
who  understand  the  laws  of  the  Creator,  and  feel 
their  importance,  whilst  others,  who  cannot  com- 
prehend  these  laws  or  perceive  their  utility,  should 
be  restrained  by  inferior  and  selfish  motives,  even 
by  disagreeable  impressions  on  their  senses,  or  by 
feeling  the  pains  of  hunger,  or  solitary  confine- 
ment.    The  latter  means  will  be  rarely  necessary. 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENTS.         185 

but  if  SO,  should  not  be  neglected.  The  flogging 
nystem  however,  will  be  abandoned  in  proportion 
as  human  nature  becomes  understood,  and  educa- 
tion conducted  accordingly. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

l:VERY    ONE    HAS    HIS    NATURAL    GIFTS- 

The  reader,  somewhat  versed  in  Phrenology, 
will  easily  perceive,  that  the  different  considera- 
tions of  this  work  are  in  the  most  intimate  connec- 
tion with,  and  even  founded  on,  ideas  developed 
in  other  publications  to  which  I  have  frequently 
referred.  In  this  Chapter  I  take  it  for  granted, 
that  all  mental  dispositions  or  powers,  are  innate, 
and  I  speak  of  them  in  so  far  only,  as  regards  the 
direction  of  their  actions. 

In  respect  to  feelings  as  well  as  intellect,  man- 
kind may  be  ranged  in  different  classes.  There 
are  persons  who  may  be  called  fortunate,  if  not 
elect,  namely,  those  who,  from  the  felicity  of  their 
natural  constitution,  desire  only  what  is  good, 
who  act  from  love,  and  show  pure  morality  in  all 
their  actions.  In  these  happy  beings,  the  superior 
feelings  predominate  much  over  those  common  to 

man  and  animals. 

17* 


186 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


The  rest  of  mankind,  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber, are  obliged  to  combat  against  the  activity  of 
the  inferior  feelings,  and  stand  in  need  of  the  law 
to  direct  and  restrain  them.  Three  subdivisions 
of  this  latter  class  may  be  considered.  The 
first  embraces  those  who  have  one  or  several  of 
the  inferior  as  well  as  one  or  several  of  the  supe- 
rior feelings  very  active.  These  persons  may  be 
great  in  vice  or  virtue,  according  as  they  follow 
the  dictates  of  their  inferior  or  superior  faculties. 

In  the  second  order,  may  be  reckoned  those  in 
whom  certain  inferior  faculties  are  very  active, 
and  all  the  superior  very  weak.  Such  individu- 
als are  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  overwhelm- 
ed by  vice,  in  proportion  to  the  weakness  of  the 
superior  motives.  This  disproportion  is  common 
in  great  "criminals. 

In  the  third  class  are  placed  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  mankind,  namely,  those  individuals  in 
whom  all  the  faculties  are  middling  ;  those  who 
act  according  to  education  and  external  circum- 
stances, and  follow,  without  examination,  the 
moral  and  religious  principles  which  they  are 
taught.  Some  philosophers,  founding  on  them 
as  instances,  have  been  led  to  maintain,  that  man 
does  every  thing  by  imitation.  Though  that 
opinion  be  erroneous,  the  influence  of  imitation, 
remains  very  great,  and  we  may  say  with  Mr. 
Co]^BE,    (Essays   on   Phrenology,  p.  S22.)  ''  As  a 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.  187 

general  rule,  whatever  you  wish  your  child  to  be 
or  do,  be  that  or  do  that  to  him.  If  you  wish 
him  to  be  outrageous,  to  be  cruel,  to  be  quarrel- 
some, be  outrageous,  cruel,  and  quarrelsome  to 
him.  If  you  wish  him  to  be  humane  and  polite, 
be  humane  and  polite  to  him.  If  you  wish  him  to 
be  just  and  pious,  be  just  and  devout  before  him." 
The  great  mass  of  mankind,  indeed,  cannot  be 
left  to  their  own  guidance  ;  common  people,  when 
tempted,  easily  yield  ;  education,  therefore,  in  all 
its  details,  legislation,  and  all  public  institutions, 
ought  to  contribute  to  accustom  them  to  regularity 
and  order.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  rulers 
of  mankind  must  not  expect  the  lower  minds  to 
be  obedient  whilst  they  forget  their  own  duty. 
Power  is  given,  riot  for  the  selfish  gratification 
of  those  who  are  invested  with  authority,  but  to 
promote  the  general  happiness  of  the  commu- 
nity. 

,  With  respect  to  understanding,  it  is  also  certain 
that  few  are  endowed  with  a  mind  so  compre- 
hensive, as  to  enable  them  to  learn  whatever  they 
please,  and  to  embrace  the  principles  of  universal 
knowledge.  Some  are  given  rather  to  deep  re- 
flection than  to  great  learning ;  others  have  less 
reflection,  but  much  talent  for  acquiring  erudi- 
tion ;  and,  in  the  last  place,  the  greater  number 
do  not  excel  in  any  department  of  knowledge, 
of  art,  or  of  science  whatever  ;  but  may  learn  any 


1&8  tebucATioN  or  man. 

thing  that  is  necessary  to  qualify  them  to  become 
useful  members  of  society. 

The  preceding  facts  being  ascertained  by  ob- 
tservation,  we  may  examine  the  question,  Whether 
the  same  kind  of  education  will  equally  suit  every 
individual. 

The  aim  in  educating  all  must  be  the  same, 
namely,  to  render  them  virtuous  and  intelligent ; 
but  as  the  natural  endowment  of  individuals  is 
different,  all  persons  are  not  capable  of  the  same 
improvement,  and  every  one  cannot  be  induced  by 
the  same  motives  to  pursue  the  same  end. 

The  faculties  proper  to  man,  being  the  aim  of 
all  our  actions,  should  be  cultivated  in  every  per- 
son as  much  as  possible,  but  the  natural  differ- 
ence will  be  observed  with  respect  to  the  energy 
of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  other  faculties  in  differ- 
ent individuals.  Nature,  by  her  endowment,  con- 
stitutes some  characters  moral,  and  others  reli- 
gious. The  latter  will  act  more  from  faith,  the 
former  from  duty.  Yet,  the  law,  ''Love  thy  neigh- 
bor as  thyself,"  must  be  constantly  held  up  to 
both,  as  the  object  of  their  exertions,  and  obedi- 
ence to  it  required,  even  of  those  who  do  not  feel 
inclined  to  do  so. 

If  the  superior  motives  be  not  sufficiently  strong 
to  produce   this  obedience,   the  lower  faculties 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.         189 

must  be  employed.  The  influence  of  the  latter 
powers,  then,  is  double  ;  they  constitute  motives 
themselves,  and  they  also  assist  the  superior  feel- 
ing's to  arrive  at  their  gratification.  Among  the 
lower  motives,  selfishness  and  fear  are  the  most 
generally  energetic,  and  no  legislation  can  exclude 
the  use  of  them.  j^ 

Thus,  a  true  system  of  education  cannot  be 
founded  on  single  views,  or  established  according 
to  single  individuals  ;  it  must  be  adapted  to  hu- 
man nature.  I  have  already  mentioned  that 
whoever  will  direct  man,  ought  not  to  hold  out 
only  one  motive  of  action.  He  who  endeavors  to 
change  every  person  into  a  philosopher,  and  he 
who  will  never  reason  with  any  one  is  equally 
mistaken.  A  preacher  who  invites  others  to  be- 
come morally  good,  will  err  when  he  trusts  entirely 
to  the  motives  which  govern  his  own  actions,  not 
being  aware  that  sometimes  such  motives  make 
no  inipression  on  others.  He  ought  to  bring  for^ 
ward  all  possible  reasons  to  touch  all  his  auditors, 
and  make  them  feel  those  niotives  which  they  are 
susceptible  of.  He  ought  to  be  particularly  care^ 
ful  to  be  understood,  and  to  speak  by  examples. 
Moreover,  his  precepts  must  be  confirmed  by  his 
own  actions.  He  who  teaches  order  and  cleanli-- 
ness,  must  be  orderly  and  cleanly  himself;  he  who 
preaches  peace  and  charity,  must  not  deny  these 
principles  by  his  moral  conduct.  Those  who 
say,  Follow  my  words,  but  not  my  actions,  are 


190  fcbUCATION  OF    MAN. 

unfit  for  their  situation,  and  ought  to  be  replaced 
by  more  worthy  subjects* 

It  follows,  that  the  feelings,  as  well  as  and  even 
Still  more  than  the  intellectual  faculties,  ought  to 
be  considered  before  children  are  destined  to  cer- 
tain professions,  or  adults  to  certain  places.  To 
bring  up  a  child  endowed  with  great  animal  pro- 
pensities, such  as  Amativeness,  Combativenessj 
Acquisitiveness,  Self-esteem,  &c.  to  the  church, 
whatever  his  intellect  may  be,  is  the  height  of 
error  and  absurdity.  Nothing  has  done  greater 
harm  to  society,  than  placing  individuals  in  pro^ 
fessions  and  situations  for  which  they  were  unfit, 
not  only  through  the  want  of  some  necessary  facul- 
ties^ but  also  through  the  inordinate  activity  of 
some  of  the  opposite  ones.  Strong  amativeness  or 
cruelty  produces  mischief  in  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  as  does  the  Jove  of  domination  in  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  free  nation,  corruptibility  in  a  judge, 
fear  in  a  general,  &c.  The  feelings,  also,  ought 
to  be  exercised  with  a  view  to  the  future  destina- 
tion of  children.  Combativenes  is  to  the  soldier 
what  reverence  is  to  the  clergyman  ;  but,  in  bothj 
benevolence  and  conscientiousness  should  be  active, 

It  is  also  impossible  to  insist  too  much  on  the 
importance  of  considering  the  effect  of  the  natural 
feelings,  in  the  choice  of  persons  to  rule  or  to  lead 
society.  This  highly  interesting  point  can  be  per- 
ceived,  in  all  its  magnitude,   by  those  only  who 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        19t 

are  convinced,  that  the  faculties  which  produce 
feelings,  are  natural  gifts  differing  in  every  indi- 
vidual ;  that  they  are  independent  of  intellect, 
and  are  the  principal  cause  of  our  actions.  In  this 
way,  fishermen,  who  are  eminently  gifted  in 
natural  sentiments,  may  be  better  moralists  than 
high  priests,  mathematicians^  orators,  ar  philoso- 
phers, who  excel  only  in  intellect,  and  whose  moral 
sentiments  are  weak  compared  with  their  inferior 
propensities. 

An  opposite  error,  but  not  less  hurtful  to  society 
than  the  preceding,  is  committed  by  those  who 
despise  and  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  intel- 
lectual faculties.  Some  religious  persons  of  this 
kind,  have  endeavored  to  put  aside  all  temporal 
concerns,  and  have  become  hermits.  Others  avoid 
all  pleasure,  or  even  torture  their  body,  in  order 
to  be  agreeable  to  their  Creator.  Others  repre- 
sent a  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  as  a  substitute  for 
all  other  information,  in  the  same  way  as  the  Ma- 
hometan confines  his  knowledge  to  the  Koran. 
Our  ignorance  of  human  nature  is  the  cause  of 
such  mistakes.  The  faculties  which  produce  feel- 
ings, constitute  only  one  part  of  our  nature  ;  the 
other  part  is  intellectual,  and  the  feelings  work  in 
darkness  if  not  enlightened  by  the  understanding. 

Intellectual  education  too,  is  frequently  miscon 
ducted  from  ignorance   of  human   nature.     The 
basis,  however,  of  the  direction  of  intellect  is  the 


IQ2  EDUCATION    OP    MaN. 

same  as  that  of  feelings.  A  plurality  of  intel- 
lectual powers  exists,  and  they  are  possessed  in 
difTerent  degrees  of  strength  by  different  indi- 
viduals. The  reflective  faculties  are  essential  to 
our  moral  conduct  in  every  situation  ;  and  are 
necessary  to  form  clear  conceptions  in  all  intel- 
lectual operations,  while  the  perceptive  faculties 
are  applicable  only  to  certain  kinds  of  employ 
ment.  The  reflective  powers  then  should  be  ex 
ercised  in  every  individual. 

I  have  already  repeated,  that  all  our  learning 
ought  to  be  useful,  and  that  we  sliould  obtain  pos- 
itive notions  instead  of  mere  signs,  which  convey 
no  meaning.  Indeed  no  one  has  excelled,  nor 
will  excel,  as  a  deep  thinker,  as  a  great  minister, 
general,  lawyer,  physician,  or  moralist,  merely 
because  he  is  a  good  classical  scholar.  Great  men 
are  no  doubt  frequently  skilled  in  the  classics; 
and  it  would  certainly  be  astonishing,  if  their 
natural  capacities,  which  enabled  tliem  to  become 
great,  should  prevent  them  from  becoming  good 
Latin  scholars,  since  we  see  that  they  are  obliged 
to  spend  more  time  and  labor  in  learning  Latin 
than  in  any  other  pursuit.  But  it  should  never 
be  forgotten,  that  the  talent  for  learning  artificial 
signs  is  a  primitive  one,  and  that  it  may  or  may 
not  be  combined  in  any  individual  with  a  great 
endowment  of  other  intellectual  powers,  and  hence 
that  it  is  wrong  to  consider  it  as  the  standard  of 
understanding  in  general.     It  is  high  time,  says 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        193 

Dr.  Rush,  (Essays  Literary,  Moral,  and  Philo- 
sophical. Phil.  1806,)  to  distinguish  between  a 
philosopher  and  a  scholar,  between  things  and 
words.  We  may  be  good  scholars,  and  know 
nothing  of  man  and  things.  A  mere  scholar  can 
call  a  horse  or  a  cow  by  different  names,  but  he 
frequently  knows  nothing  of  the  qualities  and 
uses  of  these  valuable  animals.  "A  boy  of  eight 
years  old;  with  the  Latin  grammar  in  his  hand, 
asked  his  father  who  made  the  Latin  language, 
and  for  what  it  was  made  ?  Another  boy,  ot 
eleven  years  of  age,  wished  he  had  not  been  born, 
because  of  the  trouble  which  he  found  in  learning 
Latin."  It  is  certain,  as  Dr.  Rush  also  says,  that 
many  sprightly  boys,  of  excellent  capacities  for 
useful  knowledge,  have  been  so  disgusted  with 
the  dead  languages,  as  to  retreat  from  the  drudg- 
ery of  schools  to  low  company,  whereby  they  have 
become  bad  members  of  society. 

The  exclusive  study  of  the  ancient  languages 
has  retarded  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Whoever  takes  an  interest  in  their  improvement 
must  declare  against  it.  Philology  ought  to  be 
considered  as  a  particular  branch  of  instruction,  in 
the  same  way  as  Chemistry,  Botany,  &c.  Useful 
and  practical  knowledge  ought  to  be  the  principal 
object  of  intellectual  education.  During  the  time 
we  spend  in  learning  the  words  in  which  Virgil 
delivers  the  erroneous  opinion,  that  bees  originate 
from  putrefaction,  we  might  learn,  with  greater 
18 


194  EDUCATION    OF   MAN. 

advantage,  the  natural  history,  treatment,  and  use- 
fulness of  this  insect  itself.  In  countries  where 
vines  are  planted,  it  is  more  useful  to  teach  chil- 
dren how  to  cultivate  them,  and  how  to  make 
wine,  than  the  expression  which  Horace  employs 
to  inform  us,  that  he  liked  a  good  glass  of  wine. 
Instead  of  learning  Mythology  in  Latin  and  Greek, 
we  had  better  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the 
history  of  the  different  religious  creeds,  and  of 
true  Christianity  by  reading  in  our  mother-tongue. 
Of  what  use  is  it  to  us  to  know  what  words  the 
Greeks  used  when  they  spoke,  since  we  never  con- 
verse in  Greek  ? 

Intellectual  education  may  be  divided  into  Gen- 
eral and  Professional ;  and  in  both  respects  the 
pupils  may  be  subdivided  into  several  classes,  not 
according  to  age  and  time,  but  according  to  the 
objects  to  be  taught,  and  those  to  be  learnt ;  for, 
in  point  of  fact,  some  children  learn  double  what 
others  do  in  a  given  time,  and  succeed  better  in 
one  branch  than  in  another.  They  should  remain 
in  each  class  as  long  as,  and  no  longer  than,  is 
necessary  to  acquire  sufficient  knowledge  of  the 
branch  there  taught.  There  should  be  one  pro- 
fessor for  each  branch,  and  each  class  should  be 
conducted  according  to  the  plan  of  mutual  in- 
struction. 

I  have  already  laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental 
rule,  that  no  sign  should  be  employed  without  its 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        195 

meaning  is  explained,  and  that  children  should  be 
constantly  admonished,  that  they  use  artificial 
signs  as  means  of  communication  or  recollection, 
and  that  sensations,  feelings,  notions,  and  reflec- 
tions, precede,  and  can  be  acquired  only  by ,  the 
acti*vity  of  the  faculties  themselves. 

I  reckon  the  knowledge  of  as  many  objects  and 
beings  as  possible,  viz.  of  the  three  kingdoms  of 
natural  history,  of  their  physical  and  chemical 
qualities,  of  the  vital  phenomena,  of  history,  geo- 
graphy, geology,  and  cosmography,  of  anthropo- 
logy, the  mother  tongue,  printed  and  written 
signs,  calculation,  and,  finally,  moral  and  religious 
principles,  to  be  essential  to  a  general  intellectual 
education. 

Elementary  ideas,  or  outlines  of  these  objects, 
are  sufficient  for  children  ;  but  during  the  college 
education,  these  branches  are  to  be  extended  and 
detailed,  but  always  taught  by  the  way  of  mutual 
instruction. 

It  is  a  common  complaint  that  arts  and  sciences 
do  not  improve  as  much  as  might  be  wished  for. 
This  proves  at  least  that  education  does  not  pro- 
duce talents  ;  but  I  think,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
Nature  has  given  many  capacities  which  education 
suppresses.  If,  for  instance,  a  boy  who  has  little 
talent  for  learning  Latin,  but  great  inclination  to 
draw,  will,  whenever  the  master  turns  his  eyes 


196  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

away,  exercise  his  natural  bias,  he  will,  when  per- 
ceived, at  least  be  scolded.  The  consequence  will 
be,  that  at  the  end  he  will  know  but  very  little 
Latin,  while  his  innate  talent  of  drawing  has  been 
prevented  from  being  exercised.  In  this  way 
many  children  are  punished  for  cultivating  their 
natural  gifts,  and  their  intellectual  education  is 
impeded.  How  different  would  every  one  be, 
were  he  brought  up  according  to  his  natural  en- 
dowments. It  is  really  the  greatest  misfortune 
for  mankind  to  educate  children  and  youth  in  an 
indiscriminate  manner  ;  and  we  may  say,  that  in 
consequence  of  absurd  views  in  the  selection  of 
the  objects  taught,  and  in  the  manner  of  teaching, 
learning  has  hitherto  been  tiresome,  unprofitable, 
and  even  disgusting  in  no  ordinary  degree. 

The  mistakes  committed  are  particularly  great 
in  professional  education.  It  is  a  lamentable  truth, 
that  few  persons  stand  in  the  situations  for  which 
nature  particularly  fitted  them.  This  soldier 
ought  to  have  been  a  clergyman  ;  that  clergyman 
a  soldier  ;  and  here  we  see  a  shoemaker  who  was 
intended  for  a  poet  ;  and  there  an  advocate  who 
was  designed  for  a  shoemaker.  The  first  indica- 
tion of  improvement  in  this  respect  will  appear, 
when  human  nature  shall  be  better  understood  ; 
it  will  be  known  that  there  are  natural  gifts,  that 
these  gifts  are  different  ;  that  precepts  and  rules 
neither  bring  forth  talents  nor  moral  conduct ;  that 
none  should  be  promoted  to  the  degree  of  a  lead- 


i ' 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        197 

ing  mail,  who  is  not  fit  for  the  station,  and  that 
he  who  is  fit  for  one  place,  is  not  on  that  account 
necessarily  fit  for  all  others.  It  is  a  great  evil  if 
education  be  very  expensive,  so  that  merely  rich 
persons  can  receive  it.  Their  children  are  not  al- 
ways the  most  talented,  whilst  the  geniuses  among 
the  poorer  classes  are  excluded.  In  this  respect 
the  Roman  hierarchy  serves  as  a  model.  It  was 
conceived  in  a  true  republican  spirit,  and  no  civil 
government  has  hitherto  shown  a  succession  of  tal- 
ents at  the  head  of  affairs,  to  be  compared  with  the 
church  of  Rome. 

There  is  another  example  on  record,  which 
proves  the  importance  of  choosing  the  talents 
among  all  classes,  and  employing  every  one  ac- 
cording to  his  talents.  The  society  of  the  Jesuits 
rose  in  a  short  time  to  an  extraordinary  height 
and  influence.  Several  causes  contributed  to  this 
result ;  but  the  princi])al  one  certainly  was,  that 
they  were  employed  in  conducting  education,  dis- 
tinguished the  genius  of  their  pupils,  chose  for 
their  order  only  those  who  excelled  in  talents,  and 
employed  each  individual  according  to  his  natural 
dispositions.  No  society  will  acquire  an  equal  in- 
fluence that  expects  to  do  so  from  teaching  alone." 

Moreover,  their  regulations  were  calculated  to 
contribute  to  their  excellence.  They  were  under 
a  leading  general,  who  nominated  without  con- 
trol all  functionaries  of  the  order,  and  could  re- 

18* 


198  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

move  them  at  pleasure.  To  him  the  reports  of 
the  subordinate  societies  were  submitted.  These 
reports  were  minute  and  circumstantial  in  the 
highest  degree,  containing  exact  information  of 
the  characters  of  the  novices,  and  professed  mem- 
bers, their  talents,  dispositions,  and  prevailing 
tendencies,  and,  above  all,  their  knowledge  of  hu- 
man nature,  and  experience  in  affairs.  Thus,  the 
general  could  appoint  to  each  man  his  station  and 
his  reward,  could  elevate  and  degrade,  exclude 
and  retain,  and  allot  the  chief  duties  to  the  highest 
abilities. 

I  am  far  from  defending  the  church  of  Rome 
and  the  society  of  Jesuits  in  all  their  tendencies. 
I  argue  only  in  favor  of  their  sagacity,  in  furnish- 
ing means  of  education  to  the  better  heads  of  all 
classes,  and  in  employing  every  member  according 
U)  his  abilities. 

If  every  one  were  employed  according  to  his 
natural  gifts,  a  double  advantage  would  re- 
sult :  arts  and  sciences  would  be  cultivated  with 
more  success,  and  many  persons  would  be  better 
pleased  with  their  station  in  life.  It  is  certain, 
that  it  is  not  always  the  profession  to  which  we 
are  forced  by  circumstances,  that  makes  us  happy. 
Many  would  be  satisfied  with  a  smaller  income, 
if  they  were  allowed  to  follow  their  natural  bias. 
Even  people  of  independent  fortune  are  still  de- 
pendent on  the  general  arrangement  of  education. 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        199 

They  know  perfectly  well  that  one  or  another  of 
their  sons  will  never  excel  as  classical  scholars, 
but  they  must  submit  to  custom,  and  prejudice  : 
the  boys  must  be  drilled  for  years,  though  they 
will  soon  forget  that  which  they  learned  by  com- 
pulsion.    This  is  school-wisdom  ! 

The  second  error  of  professional  education  is, 
that  we  are  plagued  with  a  great  deal  of  useless 
knowledge,  while  the  most  important  objects  are 
overlooked.  Of  what  use  is  mathematics  to  a 
clergyman,  while  his  attention  is  scarcely  called 
to  human  nature,  and  to  the  organic  conditions  on 
which  the  manifestations  of  the  mind  depend  ? 
None  of  the  unprofitable  studies  ought  to  be  com- 
pulsory. Yet  as  every  kind  of  knowledge  is  use- 
ful, no  branch  of  it  should  be  neglected,  and 
therefore  Latin  and  Greek  might  with  propri- 
ety, continue  to  be  taught,  if  we  make  it  requi- 
site for  those  only  to  learn  them  who  have  the 
inclination  to  do  so,  or  whose  professions  require 
such  knowledge.  No  one  can  learn  every  thing, 
and  it  is  wrong  to  oblige  pupils  to  learn  that 
which  is  useless  in  their  practical  situation  in 
life. 

The  third  error  of  professional  as  well  as  of 
general  education,  consists  in  the  method  of  teach- 
ing. It  has  been  examined  in  the  preceding  pages, 
and  I  mention  it  once  more  for  the  sake  of  connec- 
tion.     Children  learn  languages  without  ideas, 


^0  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

and  natural  history  by  mere  descriptions  ;  and 
those  who  teach  them  in  this  manner,  if  they  think 
at  all  about  the  matter,  must  proceed  on  the  belief 
that  every  word  communicated  necessarily  excites, 
in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  the  idea  which  they 
mean  it  to  convey.  This,  however,  is  an  extrava- 
gant error  ;  for  words  can  excite  only  ideas  already 
acquired,  and  if  no  previous  ideas  have  been  form- 
ed, they  are  mere  unmeaning  sounds.  The  same 
error  is  committed  in  professional  education.  In 
the  study  of  medicine,  for  instance,  we  are  fre- 
quently told  a  great  deal  about  various  diseases  ; 
of  external  appearances  ;  of  different  conditions  of 
the  pulse  or  skin,  &c.  before  we  observe  such 
things  in  nature.  The  result  is,  that  the  time  and 
labor  we  spend  in  acquiring  such  theoretical  know- 
ledge are,  in  a  great  measure,  lost.  Let  us  first 
see  Nature,  and  then  hear  descriptions.  A  medical 
student,  who  has  never  seen  a  patient,  but  studied 
the  theory  of  diseases,  will  be  as  little  acquainted 
with  them  as  with  minerals  of  which  he  has  only 
read  the  descriptions,  though  he  might  excel  in 
his  theoretical  examinations. 

Thus,  in  the  study  of  medicine,  it  is  not  only 
wrong  to  compel  the  students,  as  is  the  case  at  cer- 
tain universities,  to  learn  the  auxiliary  sciences  in 
detail,  such  as  mineralogy,  botany,  zoology  and 
chemistry,  since  a  perfect  and  practical  know- 
ledge of  each  of  these  branches  would  require  sev- 
eral years  ;  but  it  is  also  a  great  error  to  begin 
with  theoretical  lectures. 


DIFFERENCE    OF    NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        201 

Moreover,  the  individual  branches  of  medical 
education  are  too  much  separated.  The  instruc- 
tion begins  commonly  with  anatomy,  without  the 
pupil  being  taught  to  think  of  the  use  of  any  par- 
ticular part.  At  certain  universities,  they  spend 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  studying  osteology 
and  myology,  (the  knowledge  of  the  bones  and 
muscles  ;)  they  must  learn  the  name  of  each  bony 
ridge  and  edge  ;  but  may  hurry  over,  with  very 
superficial  notions  of  the  viscera  and  nerves,  which 
certainly  are  more  important  to  medical  practi- 
tioners in  general,  than  those  of  the  bones  ;  whilst 
operative  surgeons  alone  stand  in  need  of  a  very 
exact  knowledge  of  the  bones  and  blood-vessels. 

Physiology  and  anatomy  ought  never  to  be 
separated  from  each  other  :  the  structure  will  be 
learned  with  more  ease  and  pleasure,  when  at  the 
same  time  its  uses  are  taught.  On  the  other  hand, 
students  ought  to  begin  with  the  more  necessary 
functions,  and  go  on  to  those  of  less  importance. 
When  well  acquainted  with  anatomy  and  physiol- 
ogy, they  ought  to  see  patients,  and  the  different 
morbid  symptoms  ;  they  should  learn  to  distin- 
guish diseases,  to  become  attentive  to  modifica- 
tions according  to  age,  temperament,  climate, 
season,  and  manner  of  living,  and  to  learn  the 
mode  of  treatment.  Being  instructed  in  this  prac 
tical  way,  they  will  feel  an  interest  in  studying 
the  Materia  Medica^  or  the  substances  used  out  of 
the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  and  also  the  chem 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ical  preparations  and  doses.  This  study  will  not 
require  great  extension,  if  we  attend  more  to  the 
art  of  healing  than  to  the  display  of  knowledge. 
The  most  skilful  practitioners  use  a  small  num- 
ber of  drugs  in  curing  their  patients,  and  they  use 
still  less  for  themselves,  being  indisposed. 

When  human  nature  shall  be  better  understood, 
and  the  primitive  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  the 
conditions  of  their  manifestations  more  perfectly 
known,  professional  education  will  be  better 
regulated,  and  we  shall  then  no  longer  be  obliged 
to  learn  merely  for  the  school,  or,  as  we  com- 
monly say,  for  the  examinations.  We  shall  then 
acquire  only  practical  knowledge,  and  no  one  will 
find  it  necessary  to  begin  his  own  plan  of  useful 
learning  when  he  has  finished  his  studies  at  the 
university.  Indeed,  nothing  can  be  more  tedious 
for  students,  than  to  attend  ex  officio  lectures  of 
mere  theoretical  schoolmen. 

Here  the  qualifications  of  teachers  might  be  con- 
sidered with  propriety  ;  they  are  certainly  of  great 
importance,  but  it  is  not  my  intention  to  speak  of 
them.  Pupils  are  well  aware,  that  great  abuses 
are  committed  in  this  respect ;  that  it  is  not 
always  the  most  worthy  who  fills  the  chair.  I 
merely  notice,  that  there  is  a  difference  between 
the  possessing  of  knowledge  and  the  capacity  of 
communicating  it  to  others,  and  that  some  persons 
of  more  knowledge  are  sometimes  less  skilful  in 


DIFFERENCE    OP   NATURAL    ENDOWMENT.        203 

teaching,  than  others  of  less  information,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  best  students  of  theorectical 
knowledge  have  not  always  the  most  practical  skill. 

The  common  method  of  teaching  arts  is  not  bet- 
ter than  that  of  cultivating  sciences.  Let  us  sup- 
pose, for  the  sake  of  example,  that  those  only  who 
have  natural  talents  apply  themselves  to  drawing, 
painting,  and  the  arts  of  imitation, — but  we  may 
ask,  how  are  they  generally  taught  ?  They  are 
too  frequently  confined  to  copying  the  antiques 
as  the  only  models  of  beauty  and  perfection,  instead 
of  representing  and  imitating  nature.  In  this  way 
artists  will  be  only  copyists,  and  never  can  acquire 
any  claim  to  originality.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ancients  had  no  exclusive  privilege  of  genius,  nor 
did  they  necessarily  exhaust  all  the  sources  of  ex- 
cellence, so  as  to  leave  to  posterity  no  resource  but 
to  copy  them.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  many 
antiques  that  have  no  merit  but  their  age.  The 
only  criterion,  then,  of  greater  or  less  perfection 
in  works  of  art,  is  their  resemblance  to  nature. 
Now.  if  the  ancients  have  brought  forth  master- 
pieces in  imitating  nature,  why  should  not  modern 
artists  do  the  same,  since  nature,  though  infinite 
in  her  modifications,  is  constant  in  her  laws  .''  Let 
us  imitate  the  method  of  the  ancient  artists,  but 
not  copy  their  productions.  They  represented 
nature,  and  imitated  her  varieties  ;  they  gave  to 
each  strong  hero,  strong  muscles,  yet  different  in 
proportion   and   size,  just  as  we   find  in  nature  ; 


204  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

why  should  our  artists  copy  only  the  statue  of 
Hercules,  in  order  to  indicate  bodily  strength  ? 
Why  should  they  in  general  confine  themselves 
only  to  one  and  the  same  configuration  and  atti- 
tude for  particular  personages  ?  All  musicians 
might  be  equally,  and,  with  the  same  right,  re- 
quested to  follow  only  the  productions  of  one  or 
several  great  composers  ;  and  all  music  which  is 
not  like  that  of  Handel,  Mozart  or  Haydn,  be 
declared  to  be  good  for  nothing. 

Even  on  the  supposition  that  education,  in  all 
its  details,  is  well  understood,  and  its  principles 
practised,  still  there  will  be  but  a  few  individuals, 
who  will  unite  all  the  faculties  necessary  to  such 
or  such,  a  situation.  The  individual  painters  will 
be  rare,  who  possess  in  a  high  degree  the  faculties 
of  Constructiveness,  Configuration,  Size,  Color- 
ing, Imitation,  Individuality,  Comparison,  and 
Causality.  The  same  difficulty  of  uniting  the 
necessary  fundamental  faculties  together  prevails 
in  all  arts,  sciences  and  professions.  In  every  one 
there  are  and  will  be  individuals  endowed  with 
one  or  several  of  the  necessary  gifts  ;  but  it  sel- 
dom happens  that  all  the  faculties  are  united  in  an 
eminent  degree  in  one  person.  The  combination 
of  the  primitive  powers  are  innumerable,  and 
form  the  proper  subject  of  a  particular  treatise  on 
talents  and  characters. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.         205 

The  reader  will  keep  in  mind,  that  in  this  vol- 
ume, I  intend  merely  to  expose  the  fundamental 
principles  according  to  which  education  is  to  be 
regulated,  and  the  human  race  perfected.  The 
peculiar  applications  are  without  end.  The  two 
following  chapters,  however,  one  on  the  education 
of  both  sexes,  and  the  other  on  that  of  nations, 
seem  to  me  particularly  interesting.  Yet  there 
too  the  general  principles  remain  the  same,  but 
their  application  is  to  be  modified,  and  adapted 
to  the  peculiarities  of  sexes  and  nations. 


CHAPTER  V. 


EDUCATION    OF    THE    SEXES. 

The  question,  whether  both  sexes  are  to  be  ed- 
ucated differently,  or  in  the  same  manner,  and 
placed  in  different  or  in  the  same  situations  in 
practical  life,  has  been,  and  is  still  differently  an- 
swered. Women  call  men  usurpers  and  tyrants  ; 
and  they,  on  the  contrary,  boast  of  natural  and 
positive  rights  of  superiority.  I  shall  consider, 
in  the  first  place,  in  a  general  way,  the  condition 
of  women  as  it  was,  and  as  it  is,  and  then  ex 
amine  what  natural  claims  they  have  to  equality. 
Their  education  is  to  be  regulated  according  to 
the  determination  of  the  latter  point. 
19 


206  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

The  condition  of  women  is  very  miserable 
among  barbarous  nations  ;  they  are  slaves.  Wher- 
ever bodily  strength  and  animal  feelings  predom- 
inate, they  are  sadly  off.  They  are  purchased, 
and  divorce  is  permitted.  The  Jews  were  privi- 
leged to  divorce  their  wives.     (Duet,  xxiv.) 

Among  civilized  nations,  as  long  as  the  code  of 
morality  is  dictated  by  the  lower  feelings,  females 
are  looked  on  as  means  of  gratifying  the  selfish 
passions  of  men.  The  ancient  Greeks  and  the 
European  nations,  during  the  dark  ages,  treated 
them  with  every  indignity.  Polygamy  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  custom  of  purchasing 
wives.  It  prevailed  originally  every  where,  and 
exists  still  in  many  countries.  In  China,  the 
wives  are  sold  at  marriages,  and  not  permitted  to 
make  any  choice  of  their  own.  By  polygamy, 
however,  some  men  usurp  the  right  of  others,  a 
custom  which  is  contrary  to  nature,  since  more 
boys  are  born  than  girls  ;  or  are  we  authorized  to 
admit  that  the  contrary  happens  in  Asia  ?  The 
pure  spirit  of  Christianity  abolished  this  odious 
practice,  and  re-established  the  primitive  law  of 
the  Creator. 

The  female  sex  has  risen  by  a  slow  progress  to 
higher  and  higher  degrees  of  estimation  in  Europe. 
Females  are  respected  wherever  moral  feelings 
are  esteemed.  Where  this  is  the  case,  they  are 
valued  as  friends  ;  but  still  they  are   either  con- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.         207 

sidered  as  weak  and  delicate  creatures,  and  as- 
sisted, since  it  is  thoiig-ht  a  duty  to  compassionate 
and  to  succor  the  feeble,  or  they  are  treated  as 
simple  and  useful  housewives. 

Where  a  taste  for  beautiful  forms  and  elegance 
of  manners  prevails,  the  females  are  considered 
as  agreeable  companions,  and  often  become  mis- 
tresses. 

Women  are  best  treated,  when  polite  manners 
and  moral  feelings  are  cultivated.  Then  they 
live  with  men  under  the  decent  form  of  matrimo- 
ny. Their  gentle  and  insinuating  manners  are 
highly  appreciated,  and  they  are  considered  as  in- 
timate and  faithful  friends. 

Yet  there  is  no  society  where  the  two  sexes 
stand  altogether  in  an  equal  situation.  Is  this  dif- 
ference founded  on  nature,  or  the  result  of  the 
selfishness  of  men  ?  Women  speak  of  vindicating 
their  natural  rights  ;  they  call  it  tyranny  to  deny 
them  a  share  in  civil  and  political  affairs,  to  force 
them  to  remain  immured  in  their  families,  &c. 
Mary  Wolstoncroft  has  taken  great  pains  to 
show,  that  both  sexes  are  by  nature  equal.  She 
was  obliged  to  admit  the  actual  inferiority  of  her 
sex ;  but  still  she  endeavored  to  prove,  that 
women  are  degraded  only  by  want  of  education, 
and  by  external  circumstances  ;  and  that  men, 
through  jealousy,  purposely  neglect  the  cultivation 


20b  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

of  girls.  Male  writers,  on  the  contrary,  maintain, 
that  nature  has  made  the  two- sexes  diflerent, 
though  concordant,  so  as  to  produce  together  a 
delicious  harmony  ;  that  she  has  prepared  them 
for  their  future  destinations,  by  a  particular  mod- 
ification of  feelings  and  intellectual  faculties  given 
to  each,  and  avoided  rivalship  between  them,  by 
giving  them  diflerent  dispositions. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  that  I  do  not  speak  of 
single  individuals.  There  are  women  who  re- 
semble men,  and  vice  versa.  Mary  Wolston- 
CROFT  speaks  of  her  own  manner  of  feeling  and 
thinking,  which  resembled  that  of  a  man.  She 
contends  particularly  for  the  power  of  generalize 
ing  ideas,  of  drawing  comprehensive  conclusions 
from  individual  observations,  a  power  which 
seems  to  her  the  only  requisite  of  an  immortal 
being ;  a  power  which  is  commonly  denied  to 
women,  and  often  considered  as  inconsistent  with 
the  female  character.  I  allow  that  this  power 
exists  in  some  women  stronger  than  in  many  men  ; 
but  Mary  Wolstoncroft  would  accuse  herself, 
and  speak  against  her  sex,  if  she  would  draw  gen- 
eral inferences  from  her  own  individual  feelings. 
As  I  am  of  the  decided  opinion,  that  the  two  sexes, 
in  the  actual  state  of  things,  are  naturally  differ- 
ent in  their  dispositions,  I  shall  contrast  them  in 
a  summary  view.  They  possess  essentially  the 
same  powers  of  mind,  the  whole  difference  consists 
in  the  degrees  in  which  they  have  them. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.         209 

The  form  of  the  female  body,  is  rounded,  and 
indicates  rather  delicacy  and  beauty  than  strength 
and  solidity.  "  Let  us  be  allowed,"  says  Mary 
WoLSTONCROFT,  "  to  take  the  same  exercise  as 
boys,  not  only  during  infancy,  but  also  during 
youth,  and  we  shall  arrive  at  the  same  perfection 
of  body."  I  admit,  that  in  girls,  confined  to 
close  rooms,  and  prohibited  from  taking  sufficient 
exercise,  the  muscles  are  relaxed,  and  the  diges- 
tive powers  destroyed.  It  would  certainly  be  ad- 
visable to  take  the  greatest  care  of  the  bodily 
constitution,  and  to  adopt  a  manner  of  living 
which  would  secure  females  against  bodily  defor- 
mities, and  the  immense  train  of  nervous  com- 
plaints that  afflict  them  under  the  present  system, 
I  pity  the  female  sex  for  their  physical  education 
being  so  utterly  neglected,  and  for  their  mental  im- 
provement being  thoroughly  mismanaged  ;  yet  I 
am  also  fully  convinced,  that  although  the  same 
physical  education  were  given  to  the  muscular 
system  of  both  sexes,  each  would  preserve  its  pe 
culiarities,  because  the  functions,  those  at  least 
which  characterize  the  sex,  are  different  in  each. 
Country  people  of  Europe  furnish  a  certain  proof 
of  the  truth  of  this  assertion  ;  boys  and  girls  are 
brought  up  in  the  same  way,  but  it  is  superfluous 
to  say  which  sex  is  the  strongest,  and  which  has 
recourse  to  the  other  when  muscular  strength  is 
required.  Women  are  exposed  to  many  little  dis- 
orders unknown  to  the  male  sex.  Farther,  in  ful- 
filling their  duty  as  mothers,  they  are  exposed  to 


210  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

great  sufferings,  and  causes  of  weakness.  Man- 
kind is  treated  in  this,  as  in  many  other  respects, 
like  all  viviparous  animals.  Though  the  manner 
of  living  be  the  same  in  both  sexes,  the  females 
are  smaller  and  weaker  than  the  males. 

Some  of  the  feelings  necessary  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  species  are  stronger  in  men,  and  others 
of  them  stronger  in  women.  In  animals,  the  male 
pursues,  the  female  yields,  and  so  it  is  in  mankind. 
Among  all  nations  men  court,  and  women  are 
courted.  As  to  the  love  of  offspring,  the  two 
sexes  show  a  decided  difference.  Female  children 
delight  to  dress  and  undress  a  baby,  to  take  every 
possible  care  of  a  doll,  to  get  an  infant  in  their 
arms,  to  carry  it,  to  sing  and  to  walk  about,  stag- 
gering under  the  weight.  Boys  seldom  think  of 
such  a  pastime.  They  have  more  inclination  to 
noisy  amusements,  to  run  about,  to  ride  upon  a 
stick  by  way  of  a  horse  ;  they  delight  in  a  top,  a 
l?all,  a  drum,  &c.  Since  the  suckling  mother 
must  stay  with  the  child,  and  provide  for  its 
wants,  nature  has  taken  care  that  she  should  be 
pleased  with  doing  so.  Indeed  many  mothers 
have  this  feeling  too  strong,  they  cannot  manage 
their  children  properly  ;  they  spoil  them,  become 
unjust  towards  other  persons  on  their  account, 
and  sacrifice  truth  and  every  thing  for  their  sake. 
This  is  seldom  the  case  with  fathers  ;  they  are 
commonly  obliged  to  inflict  the  deserved  punish- 
ments, and  to  be  the  judges  in  all  disputes. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.  211 

Mary  Wolstoncroft  denies  that  women  from 
birth,  independently  of  education,  have  a  fond- 
ness for  dolls.  She  quotes  her  own  feelings,  and 
ventures  to  affirm,  that  the  doll  will  never  excite 
the  attention  of  a  girl,  unless  confinement  allows 
her  no  alternative.  "  Girls  and  boys,"  says  she, 
"  would  play  harmlessly  together,  if  the  distinc- 
tion of  sex  were  not  inculcated  long  before  nature 
makes  any  difference."  Mary  Wolstoncroft  is 
very  wrong  to  take  herself  as  the  standard  of  her 
sex,  while  general  observation  shows,  that  through- 
out nature  the  love  of  offspring  is  stronger  in  fe- 
males than  in  males. 

Another  feeling  more  energetic  in  women  than 
in  men,  is  Attachment.  This  feeling  is  not  the 
result  of  their  weak  state,  but  is  given  by  nature. 
Many  women  have  sacrificed  to  it  their  happiness 
and  welfare.  Females  commonly  wish  to  possess, 
exclusively,  the  friendship  of  others,  and  often 
complain  of  the  want  of  friendship  in  men,  since 
they  are  not  so  exclusively  governed  by  it.  The 
circumstance  of  this  feeling  being  so  energetic  and 
prevailing  in  women,  is  an  additional  motive  why 
seduction  should  be  more  severely  punished.  I 
fear  that  many  legislators  wink  at  this  crime,  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  not  being  themselves  so 
prone  to  strong  attachments  as  women. 

There  are  still  some  other  feelings  more  active 
in  women  than  in  men,  which  essentially  enter 


212  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

into  the  formation  of  the  female  character.  It  is, 
however,  difficult  to  say  whether  they  contribute 
to  their  happiness,  since  it  often  happens,  that, 
if  they  be  not  satisfied,  they  become  sources  of 
unhappiness  to  them.  I  allude  to  Idealty  and 
Approbativeness. 

One  of  the  most  prevailing  sentiments  pf  females 
is  the  Love  of  Approbation.  They  show  it  from 
their  earliest  infancy  in  dressing,  walking,  speak 
ing,  &c.  &c.  They  are  constantly  desirous  of 
knowing  what  others  say  of  them  ;  they  are  fond 
of  distinctions  of  every  kind,  of  decorations  and 
external  show.  Young  girls,  who  are  scarcely 
capable  of  understanding  what  is  said  of  them, 
may  be  governed  by  talking  to  them  of  what 
other  people  think  of  their  behaviour.  This 
motive  has  not  the  same  effect  with  boys. 
Many  females  are  intoxicated  by  the  love  of  ap- 
probation, they  cunnot  distinguish  true  merit  from 
false  flattery,  nay,  they  would  be  pleased  with 
adoration.  They  try  to  make  impressions  on 
others  by  various  means.  Some  would  suflTer  pain 
in  order  to  be  pitied,  rather  than  remain  unno- 
ticed. 

No  man  will  object  indiscriminately  against  the 
feeling  which  causes  a  desire  of  pleasing  ;  it  is  the 
source  of  many  pleasures  in  society  ;  but  its  too 
great  activity,  combined  with  some  other  senti- 
ments, and  not  directed  by  reflection,  makes  many 


EDUCATION    OF    THE    SEXES.  213 

women  weak  and  fastidious,  or  mere  objects  of 
amusement,  by  their  pretty  nothings  and  infantine 
airs.  It  is  still  worse,  if  such  fine  ladies  be  full  of 
capricious  fancies.  Females  who  are  governed 
only  by  this  feeling",  will  remain  alluring  objects 
for  a  moment,  but  they  will  not  obtain  a  durable 
interest  in  the  affections  of  a  sensible  man.  It  fol- 
lows, that  the  sentiment  of  the  love  of  approba- 
tion being  in  general  too  strong  in  women,  does  not 
stand  in  need  of  being  exercised  ;  it  is,  indeed, 
their  greatest  enemy.  Farther,  they  delight  fre- 
quently in  a  world  of  fiction  and  eccentricity. 
The  softer  feelings  and  the  religious '  sentiments 
are  commonly  stronger  in  women  than  in  men. 
Females  therefore  become  easily  the  favorite  tools 
of  priesthood. 

Females  naturally  have  less  courage  and  destruc 
tiveness  than  men,  and  more  Cautiousness.  Fear, 
therefore,  ought  not  to  be  cherished  in  them  ;  but 
it  ought  to  be  treated  as  cowardice.  To  fear  a 
cat,  a  mouse,  an  insect,  a  little  noise,  &c.  is  irra- 
tional, looks  infantine,  and  indicates  altogether  a 
false  susceptibility  of  mind,  or  a  too  great  nervous 
irritability.  The  ardor  with  which  some  females 
amuse  themselves  in  hunting,  shooting,  and 
gaming,  appears,  on  the  other  hand,  equally  ob- 
jectionable. In  short,  while  coarseness  in  females 
is  to  be  avoided  ;  delicacy  and  refinement  of  taste 
must  not  be  confounded  with  weakness. 


^14  EDUCATION    or    MAN. 

The  conduct  of  females  in  general  is  unstable  ; 
their  opinions  are  often  wavering  ;  they  think  too 
much  of  incidental  occurrences  ;  of  actual  events  ; 
they  wish  to  enjoy  immediately  ;  are  moved  by 
momentary  impressions  ;  do  not  like  to  work  for 
a  future  period  ;  while  men  have  more  frequently 
the  end  in  view.  Females  undertake  many  things  ; 
they  are  warm  by  fits  and  starts,  but  their  warmth 
is  soon  exhausted. 

Indeed,  hitherto  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  fe- 
male sex  reside  in  their  own  feelings.  Many  civ- 
ilized women  please,  rather  than  inspire  with  re- 
spect. They  prefer  alluring  manners  to  perma- 
nent friendship.  Many  are  charming,  romantic, 
vain,  or  fine  sentamental  ladies.  They  are  occu- 
pied with  trifling  things,  mere  beings  of  sensibility 
and  pleasure,  refined  by  novels,  poetry,  and  gal- 
lantry ;  but  they  should  never  forget,  that  they 
will  always  be  considered  as  insignificant  when 
they  wish  only  to  be  fine  ladies,  and  not  to  fulfil 
the  duties  which  nature  has  assigned  to  them. 

Thus,  the  feelings  and  their  combinations  in 
women,  tend  much  to  make  them  dependent.  To 
be  independent,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  be  endowed 
with  the  feeling  of  duty  and  justice  as  the  principal 
motive  ;  these  must  also  be  combined  with  indif 
ference  about  the  opinion  of  others  when  unjust, 
with  courage  and  perseverance,  in  order  to  resist 


EDUCATION    OF    THE    SEXES.  215 

difficulties  and  obstacles,  and  to  attend  only  to  the 
aim,  and  to  think  of  the  necessary  means. 

In  order  to  understand  perfectly  the  great 
phenomenon  observad  at  all  times,  that  one  half 
of  the  human  species  has  excluded  the  other  half 
from  all  participation  in  government,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  compare  also  the  understanding  of  the  two 
sexes. 

The  intellectual  faculties,  though,  like  the  feel- 
ings, essentially  the  same  in  both  sexes,  are  wide- 
ly different  in  power  in  the  two,  and  in  the  ac- 
tual state  of  things  men  undoubtedly  enjoy  the 
superiority.  I  by  no  means  say,  that  women  are 
made  to  be  the  toys  of  men,  much  less  their  slaves  ; 
and  I  wish  that  their  understanding  may  be  more 
cultivated  than  it  usually  is,  not  by  Latin  and 
Greek,  but  by  useful  knowledge.  Let  their  whole 
character  be  prepared  for  the  important  duties  in 
their  future  stations  as  wife  and  as  mother.  Who- 
ever will  attend  to  female  education,  will  find  that 
they  acquire  many  notions  of  individual  things ;  that 
they  excel  in  the  recitation  of  anecdotes  and  de- 
scriptions of  manners,  in  the  epistolary  style  ;  that 
they  are  admirable  in  details,  but  dwell  on  effects, 
without  tracing  them  back  to  their  causes.  In 
arts  and  science  females  rarely  show  themselves 
masters,  they  most  commonly  remain  apprentices. 
Those  female  authors  who  defend  their  sex,  main- 
tain that  their  education  is  neglected,  and  that  on 


216  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

this  account  alone  they  are  inferior,  for  they  are 
all  obliged  to  admit  the  actual  inferiority  of  the 
fair  sex.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  more 
girls  than  boys  learn  music,  drawing,  and  paint- 
ing, and  that  many  females  cultivate  these  arts  ex- 
clusively. Why  then,  we  may  ask,  do  their  com- 
positions so  rarely  equal  those  of  men  ?  When- 
ever great  combinations,  deep  reflection,  discrim- 
ination, and  general  abstraction  are  required, 
when  principles  and  laws  are  to  be  estabUshed, 
females  in  general  remain  behind.  A  shawl  or  a 
ribbon  will  soon  absorb  their  minds,  and  make 
them  easily  neglect  any  philosophical  discussion. 

Thus,  there  is  a  natural  difference  between  the 
two  sexes,  not  in  the  number,  but  in  the  degrees 
of  the  primitive  powers  of  the  mind.  Some  are 
stronger  in  women,  others  stronger  in  men,  and 
both  sexes  seem  to  be  destined  to  diflferent  occu- 
pations in  society.  Indeed  no  education  will 
change  the  nature  of  the  innate  dispositions.  Let, 
then,  each  sex,  and  each  individual,  be  cultivated 
and  employed  in  those  things  for  which  he  is  fit. 
The  claim  to  justice  and  merit  is  equal  in  man 
and  woman  ;  their  duties  only  are  different.  Fe- 
males are  not  destined  in  any  circumstances  to  be 
slaves,  or  mere  patient  drudges,  nor  are  their  du- 
ties limited  to  those  of  chaste  wives  and  good  man- 
agers of  their  families  only  ;  women  are  required 
also  to  direct  the  education  of  their  children,  and 
to  be  agreeble  and  intelligent  companions  to  their 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.         211 

husbands.  Let  their  understandings  be  cultivated 
by  useful  knowledge  ;  by  the  study  of  the  human 
mind,  and  the  principles  of  education,  and  of  their 
duties  in  the  direction  of  their  families  ;  let  their 
intellect  be  improved  by  the  study  of  history  and 
of  arts  and  sciences.  Girls  commonly  learn  only 
objects  of  secondary  importance,  mere  accomplish- 
ments ;  and  hence,  when  they  arrive  at  the  age  of 
being  united  to  a  husband,  they  are  seldom  capa- 
ble of  supporting  permanent  friendship,  by  the 
elevation  of  their  minds,  and  the  steady  practice 
of  the  domestic  virtues.  Many  do  not  know  how 
to  guide  themselves,  and  still  Less  their  offspring, 
their  servants,  and  household  affairs.  Indeed,  if 
the  fair  sex  go  on  as  they  have  done  hitherto,  they 
cannot  repine  that  they  have  no  share  in  political 
concerns.  If  their  minds  do  not  take  a  more  seri- 
ous and  more  solid  turn,  they  may  govern  in 
drawing-rooms,  where  delicate  feelings  and  polite 
manners  are  attended  to,  but  they  will  have  no 
permanent  influence  on  the  laws  of  society. 

I  beg  leave,  however,  to  repeat,  that  t  admit 

individual  exceptions,  and  speak  only  of  the  sex 

in  general.     I   even    think,   that   legislators  are 

wrong  to  take  it  for  granted,  that  the  intellect  of 

men  is,  in  every  case,  superior  to  that  of  women 

Some  females  contribute  more  than  their  husbands 

to  the  fortune  of  the  family  :  Is  it  then  not  unjust 

to  permit  the  husband  to  spend  what  the  wife  has 

gained,  and  to  deprive  her  of  power,  when,  in 
20 


818  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

point  of  fact,  she  might  manage  affairs  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  her  family  and  of  herself  ? 

I  would  not  like  to  be  misunderstood,  and  cer- 
tainly not  to  be  thought  hostile  to  the  fair  sex.  I 
most  sincerely  wish  their  advancement  in  every 
respect.  In  my  opinion  there  should  be  a  greater 
number  of  better  wives,  if  there  were  a  greater 
number  of  better  husbands.  But  I  think  of  women 
what  I  say  of  nations.  If  they  want  a  Saviour 
from  without,  they  are  not  yet  fit  for  emancipation. 
Let  them  do  the  work  necessary  to  this  change, 
and  they  will  no  longer  complain  of  inferiority. 
Let  the  girls  cultivate  their  intellect  by  practical 
knowledge.  Let  them  aim  at  solidity  as  well  as 
polite  and  refined  manners,  and  not  at  prudery. 
This  latter  can  be  an  indication  neither  of  sense 
nor  of  taste.  Society,  where  both  sexes  meet  to- 
gether in  social  intercourse,  is  most  conducive  to 
mutual  improvement,  to  delicacy  of  sentiment  and 
language.  Why  do  gentlemen  exclude  ladies  from 
their  society  when  they  meet  to  speak  of  scientific 
objects  ?  Ladies  of  former  days  probably  have 
shown  less  taste  for  such  conversations.  Or  is  it 
the  fault  of  the  gentlemen  ?  In  that  case  let  our 
females  direct  the  attention  of  men  to  science  and 
arts,  let  them  prove  that  they  have  the  same  de- 
sire of  knowledge  a«  their  pretended  Lords,  and 
are  not  occupied  merely  with  finery,  ornamenta. 
dress,  and  showy  appearances.  Let  them  emanci- 
pate themselves.     But  as  long  as  they  can  read 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  SEXES.  219 

the  Old  Testament  from  one  end  to  another,  and 
can  listen  to  sermons  where  expressions  are  used, 
which  no  delicate  person  would  pronounce  in  po- 
lite society  of  gentlemen,  whilst  they  think  it  in- 
delicate to  speak  at  table  of  the  leg  of  a  fowl,  I 
cannot  help  thinking,  that  there  is  some  want  of 
reflection  either  in  the  gentlemen  who  introduce 
such  customs,  or  in  the  ladies  who  submit  to  them, 
or  in  both.  I  know  the  power  of  custom,  but  if 
the  fair  sex  cannot  overcome  such  fashionable,  but 
nonsensical  trifles,  how  can  they  imagine  to  be  able 
to  legislate  for  society  at  large  ?  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
but,  indeed  I  cannot  perceive  any  arrangement  of 
nature  that  can  lead  me  to  expect  that  women  in 
general  will  cease -soon  to  be  considered  as  subor- 
dinate to  men  in  the  higher  intellectual  capacities. 
Their  feelings  obscure  easily  their  understanding  ; 
this  is  evident  in  their  religious  manifestations.  In 
social  life  they  seize  quickly  the  useful  and  prac- 
tical part  of  things,  but  they  seldom  take  general 
and  comprehensive  views.  Yet  let  the  many  grat- 
ify their  ambition  ;  let  them  endeavor,  if  they 
please,  to  acquire  the  same  degree  of  talent,  ener- 
gy, penetration  and  perseverance  which  we  see  in 
many  men  ;  but,  till  they  have  acquired  it,  let  them 
cherish  order,  and  exercise  the  virtues  of  their 
actual  condition  in  society,  rather  than  to  present 
themselves  in  a  sphere  for  which  they,  generally 
speaking,  are  not  fitted. 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS. 


The  first  idea  that  presents  itself  in  this  Chapter, 
is  to  inquire  who,  according*  to  the  laws  of  the 
Creator,  is  intrusted  with  national  education, 
this  being  taken  in  the  most  extensive  signification 
of  the  word.  In  treating  of  the  education  of  chil- 
dren, I  took  it  for  granted,  that  parents  are  their 
natural  protectors  and  leaders,  and  that  they  ought 
to  consider  it  their  duty,  to  favor  the  happiness  of 
their  progeny.  On  the  other  hand,  parents,  being 
free  agents,  are  to  be  declared  answerable  for  their 
influence  on  their  offspring. 

Nations  and  governments  are  often  compared, 
the  former  with  children,  and  the  latter  with  pa- 
rents. The  analogy,  however,  is  very  inaccurate, 
nations  never  owing  their  existence  to  their  gover^ 
nors.  This  comparison  is  further  objectionable, 
since  nations  always  provide  for  the  living  of  their 
rulers.  It  seems,  therefore,  more  reasonable  to 
think,  that  individuals  unite  under  determinate 
conditions  for  the  sake  of  the  common  good  ;  and 
submit,  on  that  account,  to  an  appointed  leader  or 
director.     But  who  could  fancy  that  this  submis' 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  221 

sion  can  be  agreed  to  at  the  expense  of  the  general 
welfare  ? — The  sovereignty  of  nations  seems  evi- 
dently to  be  a  law  of  the  Creator,  and  will  be  ac- 
knowledged in  proportion  as  men  become  intelli- 
gent and  virtuous. 

Yet,  let  us  suppose  what  governors  like  to  per- 
suade mankind  :  that  they  exist  by  the  grace  of 
God,  viz.  allowing  this  to  be  in  the  same  way  as 
every  arrangement  is  made,  and  every  kind  of 
order  is  established  by  the  will  of  the  Creator  ; 
but  let  us  add  the  question,  whether  God,  the  Fa- 
ther of  all,  according  to  reason  and  Christianity, 
could  establish  civil  and  religious  governments 
for  the  sake  of  any  absolute  power  and  private 
pleasure,  independent  of  general  happiness  ? — 
Reason  says,  that  wherever  there  is  a  community, 
its  aim  can  be  the  public  good  alone.  This  prin- 
ciple prevails  as  regards  families,  tribes,  nations 
and  mankind  at  large.  Christianity  teaches  the 
same  doctrine.  Jesus  Christ,  instead  of  assign- 
ing privileges  to  his  disciples,  abolished  all  per- 
sonal supremacy  and  prerogatives.  *'  Ye  know," 
said  he,  "that  the  princes  of  the  Gentiles  exercise 
dominion  over  them,  and  they  that  are  great  ex- 
ercise authority  upon  them  ; — But  it  shall  not  be 
so  among  you,  but  whosoever  will  be  great  among 
you,  let  him  be  your  minister,  and  whosoever 
will  be  chief  among  you,  let  him  be  your  servant." 
(Matt.  XX.)     "  The  disciples  had  disputed  among 

themselves  who  should  be  the  greatest ;  and  he 
20* 


222  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

sat  down,  and  called  the  twelve,  and  said  unto 
them,  If  any  man  desire  to  be  the  first,  the  same 
shall  be  the  last  of  all  and  servant  of  all."  (Mark 
ix.)  He  ordered  them  to  be  peaceable,  humble, 
charitable,  and  satisfied  with  their  daily  bread. 
The  following  text,  "  Render  unto  Caesar  the 
things  which  are  Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things 
that  are  God's,"  (Matt,  xxii.)  commonly  quoted  to 
prove  that  Christianity  is  not  against  absolute 
rulers,  bears,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  sound  interpre- 
tation than  is  commonly  given  to  it.  Christ  im- 
posed upon  his  followers  a  new  code  of  morality, 
which  was  the  will  of  his  heavenly  Father,  and 
incumbent  on  all  his  disciples,  Jews  and  Gentiles  : 
one  of  its  great  commandments,  applicable  to  all 
members,  is  to  love  our  neighbor  as  ourselves. 
Now,  I  doubt,  whether  common  sense  can  allow 
privileges  compatible  with  such  a  doctrine  ?  If 
we  maintain  that  Jesus  Christ  sanctioned  abso- 
lute power,  because  he  did  not  interfere  with  it ; 
it  may  be  said,  with  equal  propriety,  that  he 
sanctioned  every  state  of  things,  he  did  not  men- 
tion. Is  it  not  a  natural  consequence  of  his 
doctrine,  that  those  who  follow  it,  change  their 
former  manner  of  living,  and  abandon  the  abuses 
of  preceding  ages  ?  at  all  events,  even  those  who 
consider  God  as  the  true  legislator,  and  them- 
selves as  the  directors  appointed  by  his  special 
grace,  must  acknowledge  that  the  aim  of  Chris 
tianity  is  the  general  happiness  of  mankind,  and 
that  all  notions  opposed  to  that  cause,  must  be 
abandoned. 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  223 

The  reader,  then,  may  easily  suppose,  that  I  do 
not  intend  to  examine  the  means  favorable  to  gov- 
ernments, in  order  to  dispose  nations  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  good  pleasure  of  their  rulers,  to  keep 
them  in  ignorance  and  poverty,  to  force  them  to 
passive  obedience,  and  employ  them  to  mere  selfish 
purposes,  in  short,  to  enslave  them  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, my  object  is  evidently  to  speak  of  the  means 
which  may  enable  governments  to  fulfil  the  only 
reasonable  and  moral  destination  of  their  existence. 
[  take  it  for  granted,  that  general  welfare  is  the 
object  of  national  education,  and  go  at  once  to  the 
inquiry  how  this  is  to  be  obtained. 

In  national  education  as  in  that  of  individuals, 
the  same  principles  prevail.  Those  who  wish  to 
contribute  to  this  great  work  must  always  remem 
ber,  first,  that  they  cannot  create,  but  are  confined 
to  the  laws  of  the  Creator  ;  hence,  that  they  can 
produce  certain  effects  only  imder  conditions  ; 
secondly,  that  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are  innate, 
and  that  their  manifestations  depend  on  the 
cerebral  organization  ;  thirdly,  that  the  special 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  essentially  the  same, 
but  more  or  less  active  in  different  nations ; 
fourthly,  that  man  acts  from  feelings  rather  than 
from  intellect  ;  and  finally,  that  the  feelings  in 
themselves  are  blind,  and  that  their  actions  must 
be  regulated  by  reason.  Convinced  of  these  prin- 
ciples, they  may  endeavor  to  increase  or  diminish 
the  activity  of  the  individual  powers,  and  direct 
them  towards  the  aim  of  society. 


224  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

With  respect  to  the  general  preliminary  princi- 
ples of  national  as  well  as  individual  education,  I 
refer  to  my  other  publications,  where  these  points 
are  examined  with  details  ;  even  in  treating  of  the 
means  necessary  to  obtain  the  desired  effect  of  na- 
tional education,  I  may  be  short,  since  they  are 
the  same  as  those  explained  in  the  preceding 
chapters. 

Among  the  means  of  improvement,  propagation 
occupies  the  first  place,  and  crossing  the  breed  is 
the  surest  way  of  changing  races.  Foreign  inva- 
ders, who  intermarried  with  the  old  inhabitants, 
have  greatly  contributed  to  change  the  character 
of  different  nations  ;  and  new  settlers  who  mix 
with  the  natives  will  be  of  greater  effect  than  all 
sorts  of  other  regulations.  The  northern  provinces 
of  Ireland  are  inhabited  by  Scotch,  and  by  a  mix 
ed  race  of  Scotch  and  the  primitive  inhabitants  ; 
their  character  is  known  to  be  different  from  that 
of  the  Leinster  people,  and  their  cerebral  organi- 
zation is  not  less  so.  Tribes,  by  attending  to  the 
laws  of  hereditary  descent  during  several  genera- 
tions, might  be  modified  with  greater  certainty 
than  by  theoretical  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing,  by  hearing  sermons  and  repeating  prayers. 
Granted  that  governments  have  no  right  to  force 
nations,  except  in  conformity  with  the  established 
laws  ;  they  may,  however,  if  they  really  mind  the 
welfare  of  the  people,  inculcate  the  natural  laws 
of  hereditary  descent,  and  find  various  ways  to 


EDUCATION    OP    NATIONS*  22B 

favor  their  practice.  Careless  tribes  ou^ht  to  in- 
termarry with  cautious  persons ;  fearful  with  coura- 
geous; gloomy  with  gay,  &c.  Natural  morality 
and  Christianity  command  nations  to  live  in  peace, 
and  by  crossing  their  blood,  their  faculties  of  body 
and  mind  may  be  strengthened  and  improved. 
The  principle.  Make  the  tree  good  and  it  will 
bring  forth  good  fruit,  is  undeniable. 

Thus,  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  hereditary 
descent  being  the  first  and  surest  means  of  im- 
proving nations,  deserves  the  attention  of  legisla- 
tors and  governors  :  it  embraces  the  conditions  of 
innate  strength  of  body  and  mind  ;  the  causes  of 
degeneration  ;  the  propagation  of  hereditary  dis- 
eases ;  the  number  of  inhabitants,  or  population  ; 
and  the  regulation  of  marriages.  A  military  gov- 
ernment, that  institutes  the  conscriptionj  such  as 
it  existed  in  France  under  the  reign  of  Buonaparte, 
— that  carries  on  war  for  several  generations,  and 
distributes  all  the  honors  only  to  soldiers, — is  the 
greatest  curse  to  a  nation.  Degeneration  will  be 
unavoidable,  since  all  the  better  heads  are  sacri- 
ficed, and  the  inferior  allowed  to  propagate.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  all  inferior  moral  and  intel^ 
lectual  organizations  are  employed  as  soldiers, 
and  prohibited  from  marrying,  the  military  line 
may  be  very  useful  to  society.  Hence,  if  stand' 
ing  armies  be  necessary,  take  up  in  preference 
those  who  enlist  from  laziness  and  disorderly 
habits,  and  who  are  under  th^  influence  of  the 
lower  propensities. 


226  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

I  think  it  necessary  to  add,  that  it  is  by  no  means 
my  intention  to  degrade  the  military  profession ;  I 
acknowledge  its  usefulness  and  merit  in  time  of 
necessity,  as  in  a  war  of  defence  against  foreign 
aggression.  I  even  admit,  that  in  order  to  resist 
with  vigor,  every  member  of  the  community 
should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  arms,  and  be 
obliged  to  defend  his  country  in  case  of  attack. 
The  number  of  degenerated  brains  will  always  be 
small  in  proportion  to  the  great  bulk  of  the  na- 
tion ;  they  will  be  easily  kept  in  order,  partly  by 
the  regular  behavior  and  good  example  of  their 
companions,  partly  by  the  severe  laws  of  military 
discipline.  Their  number  will  also  diminish  by 
degrees,  when  all  the  principles  of  national  edu- 
cation shall  be  practised.  The  great  weight  I  lay 
on  this  proceeding  depends  on  the  means  of  puri- 
fying the  race,  by  preventing  the  inferior  organi- 
sations from  propagating. 

The  next  object  of  national  education  concerns 
what  is  commonly  styled  physical  education,  or 
the  regulation  of  the  vegetative  functions.  It  in- 
cludes the  salubrity  of  air  and  light,  cleanliness, 
food,  clothing,  bodily  exercise,  in  short,  corpo- 
real health  and  strength,  these  being  indispensable 
conditions  to  personal  happiness  and  public  use- 
fulness. 

In  this  respect,  too,  a  good  deal  more  than  gen- 
erally is,  might  be  done ;  in  taking  for  granted  that 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  221 

governments  never  act  from  selfish  views,  but  al- 
ways with  the  intention  to  favor  the  public  good^ 
since  they  are  aware  that  they  themselves  die, 
whilst  their  nation  continues  and  may  be  everlast- 
ing, and  that  therefore  they  calculate  their  mea- 
sures not  for  momentary  advantages,  but  for  per- 
manent results.  This  latter  point,  however,  i& 
too  often  neglected,  though  it  is  a  characteristic 
sign  of  greatness  in  a  legislator,  if  his  regulations 
be  lasting,  viz;  adapted  to  nature  and  her  manifes- 
tations. 

The  preservation  of  bodily  health  and  strength 
is  of  greater  importance  than  legislators  common- 
ly imagine,  and  its  neglect  during  several  genera-^ 
tions  may  greatly  contribute  to  the  fall  of  a  nation. 
— Overgrown  towns,  capitals  in  general,  after 
several  centuries,  would  die  out,  if  the  inhabi 
tants  were  not  renewed  by  people  from  the  country. 
In  the  same  way  whole  nations  may  be  weakened 
by  various  causes :  they  may  degenerate,  lose 
their  energy,  grow  old,  as  it  is  commonly  express- 
ed, and  become  incapable  to  resist  foreign  invaders. 
Hence,  whatever  besides  the  innate  dispositions  of 
the  body  and  mind,  concerns  the  salubrity  of  hab- 
itations, the  purity  of  air  in  the  streets  and  houses, 
food,  cleanliness,  bodily  exercise,  &c.  belongs  to 
the  scope  of  legislation.  This  chapter  is  vast,  and 
includes  every  point  conducive  to  health  and 
strength. 


228  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

In  this  as  in  any  other  respect,  nations,  like  chil- 
dren, do  not  always  understand  what  is  the  most 
advantageous  to  them.  They  are  too  often  satis- 
fied with  temporary  amusements,  and  neglect  the 
conditions  of  permanent  happiness.  Legislators, 
therefore,  be  they  hereditary  and  permanent,  or 
chosen  and  temporary,  might  and  ought  to  lead 
the  community,  and  prepare  their  happiness,  in 
the  same  way  as  parents  provide  for  children. 

The  views  which  governments  entertain  of  their 
right  to  interfere  with  the  personal  Hbertyofthe 
people,  are  sometimes  very  singular.  They  often 
show  indifference  about  things  which  do  harm  to 
individuals  and  to  the  whole  of  the  nation,  and 
punish  as  crimes  disorders  which  are  of  little  con- 
sequence. They  may  wink  at  debauchery,  drunk- 
enness, gluttony,  luxury,  &c.  and  bestow  the 
right  of  hunting  as  a  privilege ;  they  fix  the  quan- 
tity of  wine  which  may  be  carried  from  one  cellar 
to  another,  and  inflict  a  penalty  upon  the  trans- 
gressor, but  license  numberless  ale-houses;  they 
grant  only  a  small  quantity  of  gunpowder  to  be 
kept  in  private  houses,  but  tolerate  gaming-places 
and  lotteries;  they  force  the  individuals  to  be 
sailors  or  soldiers,  but  have  no  authority  to  pro- 
pagate vaccination ;  they  oblige  medical  men  to 
study  anatomy,  and  inflict  upon  criminals  the  dis 
section  of  their  body  as  a  punishment,  &c. ;  they 
allow  the  poor  to  multiply  as  they  like,  and  force 
the  rich  to  nourish  the  poor  and  their  progeny, 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS. 

&c.  Who  does  not  perceive  that  they  never  hesi- 
tate to  interfere  in  whatever  answers  their  own 
purposes,  always  under  the  pretext  of  the  common 
welfare,  but  that  they  have  no  right  to  restrain 
the  personal  liberty  in  whatever  is  indifferent  to 
them.  It  seems  to  me  that,  among  civilized  na- 
tions, every  interference  of  the  government  should 
be  allowed  which  tends  to  the  commonwealth,  and 
which  is  obligatory  for  every  member  of  the  society. 
Personal  exceptions  are  unjust,  they  weaken  by 
degrees  the  force  of  the  laws,  and  at  last  destroy 
their  efficacy. 

The  regulations  concerning  habitations  and 
nourishment  arc  of  prime  influence.  The  situa- 
tion nuist  be  healthy,  the  air  pure,  its  circulation 
free ;  hence  the  streets  large,  the  houses  not  too 
high,  the  abodes  and  walks  freed  of  every  sort  of 
ordure;  dunghills  and  filth  at  a  certain  distance 
from  dwelling-places  and  public  roads.  In  short, 
it  is  necessary  to  enjoy  cleanliness  of  every  de- 
scription, and  pure  air  in  every  situation. 

Nourishment  must  be  adapted  to  the  constitu- 
tion, age,  occupation,  climate  and  weather.  No- 
thing is  wholesome  or  unwholesome  in  itself.  In 
northern  countries,  and  in  cold  weather,  animal 
food  is  more  easily  digested  than  vegetables ;  these 
latter,  on  the  contrary,  agree  better  in  the  south 
and  in  hot  weather  ;  whilst  a  mixture  of  meat  and 

vegetables  favors  best  bodily  strength  in  temper- 
21 


230  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ate  climates ;  but  whenever  animal  food  is  well 
digested,  it  gives  more  strength  to  the  body,  and 
then  vegetables,  by  feeding  and  multiplying  do- 
mestic animals,  should  be  changed  into  flesh,  be- 
fore they  serve  to  nourish  man. 

Temperance  and  sobriety  greatly  invigorate  the 
body  and  mind ;  intemperance  and  debauchery, 
therefore,  should  be  restrained  by  all  possible 
means.  The  natural  wants  are  to  be  provided ; 
and  as  Christians  pray  only  for  their  daily  bread, 
objects  of  refined  cookery  might  be  imposed  with 
enormous  duty,  and  drunkenness  considered  as  a 
civil  fault. 

As  bodily  exercise  particularly  strengthens,  as 
it  invites  to  sleep,  and  secures  against  great  disor- 
ders, it  is  to  be  generally  encouraged.  Gymnastic 
amusements  may  be  established  for  all  ages  and 
for  all  classes  of  society.  The  Jews  were  ordered 
on  the  sabbath  day  to  take  a  walk  out  of  the  city ; 
and  here  rich  and  poor,  young  and  old,  master 
and  slave,  met  and  indulged  in  innocent  mirth  or 
in  the  pleasures  of  friendly  intercourse.  Moses, 
too,  instituted  three  national  festivals,  not  only 
for  the  sake  of  religion,  but  also  to  maintain  na- 
tional union.  The  gymnastic  exercises  and  na- 
tional games  of  the  Greek  and  their  good  effects 
are  generally  known  and  admired.  Why  then 
are  similar  enjoyments  and  means  of  producing 
public  spirit  neglected    by    modern   legislators  ^ 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS. 


031 


Why  are  priests  allowed  to  change  the  sabbath  day 
into  a  day  of  gloom,  whilst  Moses  wished  it  to  be  a 
day  of  cheerfalness  ?  The  rich  amuse  themselves 
during  the  week,  they  have  balls,  or  at  least  other 
parties  of  joy  in  which  the  clergymen  themselves 
participate;  but  are  the  poor,  who  work  from 
Monday  to  Saturday  for  their  sustenance,  to  be 
entirely  deprived  of  every  kind  of  amusement? 
Will  they  not  naturally  be  drawn  to  ale-houses 
and  gin-shops,  or  at  least  feel  inclined  to  indulge 
in  drunkenness  or  other  animal  propensities,  since 
all  public  amusements,  even  a  walk  in  the  fields, 
are  interdicted.  The  true  sense  of  religion  is  mis- 
understood, and  the  bad  consequences  are  unavoid- 
able. I  have  reason  to  believe  that  refined  civili- 
zation on  one  hand,  and  gloom  in  religion  on  the 
other,  are  great  causes  of  misery  and  many  secret 
sins  which  ruin  the  health  of  many  individuals. 
Priesthood  should  consider  it  their  duty  to  be 
better  acquainted  with  human  nature  and  the  laws 
of  the  Creator,  which  man  never  violates  without 
suffering  for  it.  Religion  cannot  be  instituted  to 
make  man  miserable,  or  to  prepare  him  for  the 
mad-house. 

Idleness,  the  great  source  of  personal  dissatisfac- 
tion and  of  many  faults  and  crimes,  should  be  de- 
clared a  moral  and  civil  vice,  and  as  such  prohib- 
ited. Every  one  should  be  obliged  to  exercise  a 
profession  ;    mendicity    entirely  forbidden  ;  and 


232  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

every   citizen   honored  in  proportion  as  he  con- 
tributes to  the  welfare  of  his  fellow-creatures. 

Here  a  difficult  matter  presents  itself  concerning 
the  poor  and  charitable  institutions.  The  feelings 
are  blind,  and  temporary  relief  of  a  feeling  may 
do  permanent  mischief.  This  seems  too  much 
the  case  with  charity.  The  poor  are  undoubtedly 
a  burden  to  themselves  and  to  the  community  at 
large  ;  I  find,  therefore,  whatever  contributes  to 
increase  their  number  objectionable,  charitable  in- 
stitutions not  excepted,  since  in  providing  alimenta- 
tion for  the  poor  they  encourage  their  propaga- 
tion. It  is  not  my  object  to  examine  this  matter, 
but  I  admit,  with  all  enlightened  political  Econo- 
mists, that  the  number  of  population  depends  on 
the  means  of  alimentation,  though  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  most  populous  countries  are  the  most 
happy.  I  also  refer  the  reader  to  the  chapter  on 
happiness,  in  the  Philosophical  Principles,  Vol.  11. 
of  Phrenology,  to  make  him  understand  my  man- 
ner of  thinking.  I  here  confine  myself  to  state 
the  reasons  which  induce  me  to  blame  the  obliga- 
tion to  provide  for  the  poor.  It  is  generally  un- 
just to  force  others  to  work  for  our  welfare;  and 
if  the  government  think  it  right  to  prevent  me 
from  doing  so  with  others,  there  is  no  more  right 
to  oblige  me  to  nourish  others,  or  to  work  for 
them.  All  donations  of  this  kind  should  be  vol- 
untary. Governments  may  excuse  this  injustice 
by  the  public  order  and  welfare,  but  would  they 


EDUCATION   OF   NATIONS.  233 

not  act  more  prudently  by  removing  the  causes  of 
misery  than  by  increasing  the  number  of  the  mis- 
erable ?  As  general  welfare  is  the  aim  of  society, 
and  as  the  poor-laws  and  charitable  institutions 
augment  the  mass  of  misery,  benevolent  and  char- 
itable persons  will  do  well  to  reflect  and  reason 
before  they  act,  in  order  to  bring  their  feelings  in 
harmony  with  reason.  It  is  a  well  known  fact, 
that  charitable  institutions  of  any  kind  never 
diminish  the  number  of  those  who  stand  in  need 
of  assistance ;  hence  they  give  rise  to  permanent 
harm.  Their  nature  should  be  changed,  and  it 
might  be  taken  as  a  leading  point,  that  public  in- 
stitutions are  to  be  abolished,  if  they  augment 
public  misery,  and  to  be  encouraged  as  far  as  they 
diminish  misery  and  establish  general  happiness. 
Public  schools  where  useful  knowledge  is  taught, 
institutions  for  blind  or  for  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
hospitals  for  unforeseen  accidents,  are  of  the  latter 
kind.  Legislators  in  general  are  not  careful 
enough  in  reference  to  pauperism. 

As  sufficient  alimentation  is  the  first  condition 
of  our  preservation,  and  as  parents  are  bound  by 
nature  to  bring  up  their  children,  those  who  can- 
not provide  for  a  family  should  be  prevented  from 
propagation.  On  the  other  hand,  as  idleness  and 
mendicity  are  civil  faults,  charitable  institutions 
should  be  houses  of  correction  or  penitentiaries. 
The  lazy  and  mendicants  might  be  confined,  in-s 
21* 


^34  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

stracted,  educated,  obliged  to  work,  and  kept  till 
they  can  provide  for  themselves. 

Again,  as  many  occupations  in  society  are  hurtful 
to  health,  they  must  be  superintended,  particularly 
if  youth  be  employed  therein.  Children,  for  in- 
stance, brought  up  in  factories  and  hot  rooms,  una- 
voidably degenerate,  and  become  sources  of  fu- 
ture misery. 

The  consequences  of  idleness  and  poverty  being 
deplorable,  activity  and  industry  are  to  be  patron- 
ized. Yet  also  this  proceeding  is  not  without  in- 
convenience. Besides  the  misery  which  attends 
the  working  classes,  in  proportion  as  they  degen- 
erate, the  happiness  of  the  families  who  enrich 
themselves  by  industry  and  commerce  is  never 
lasting,  since  riches  invite  to  luxury,  and  luxury 
occasions  many  evils  of  body  and  mind  in  individ- 
uals and  nations.  I  grant  that,  in  the  actual  state 
of  things,  luxury  has  the  advantage  of  bringing 
money  into  circulation,  and  this  ought  to  be  at- 
tended to  as  long  as  great  riches  are  collected. 
But  the  mischief  begins  if  the  owners  spend  above 
their  income,  or  if  they  look  out  for  gain  by  every 
means.  In  this  way,  a  too  great  anxiety  about 
riches,  as  well  as  great  poverty,  do  harm. 

Two  important  ideas  concerning  riches  may  be 
examined :  1.  Great  wealth  is  neither  sufficient  nor 
necessary  to  personal  happiness;  and,  2.  Riches 
alone  do  not  secure  the  duration  of  nations  any 
more  than  that  of  families. 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  235 

The  first  idea  is  confirmed  by  daily  observation. 
A  greater  number  of  persons  understand  to  make 
a  fortune  rather  than  to  enjoy  it ;  and  whilst  they 
Collect  and  work,  they  are  commonly  happier  and 
more  satisfied  than  when  they  give  up  business  and 
live  in  retirement.  Personal  happiness  depends 
on  health,  and  health  on  temperance.  Now  this 
virtue  only  requires  a  moderate  income,  which 
may  be  procured  by  a  moderate  exertion.  This 
state  again  protracts  the  necessity  to  work,  and 
keeps  up  an  essential  condition  of  happiness,  which 
is  no  more  possible  without  occupation  than  col- 
lecting wealth  without  activity. 

The  second  idea  is  equally  certain,  and  confirmed 
by  history.  Monarchical  governments,  therefore, 
who  want  a  court  and  splendor,  keep  up  rich 
families  by  primogeniture,  and  hitherto  they  en- 
deavored to  preserve  their  nation  by  poverty  and 
ignorance.  The  examination  of  this  subject  be- 
longs to  political  economy,  a  science  destined,  in 
my  opinion,  to  discover  means  not  only  of  collect- 
ing wealth,  but  of  securing  property. 

This  object  is  interesting  both  in  a  moral  and 
political  point  of  view ;  and  here  we  find  a  new 
example  of  justice  being  inseparable  from  the  gen- 
eral and  permanent  happiness  of  mankind.  Rich 
families  left  to  themselves  degenerate.  Now  is  it 
not  evidently  a  great  injustice,  that  degraded 
children  enjoy  wealth,  whilst  active  and  intelli- 


236  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

gent  members  of  society  are  deprived  of  the  pos- 
sibility to  ameliorate  their  situation,  as  it  happened 
under  the  feudal  system  ?  The  bulk  of  a  nation 
living  in  that  state  is  miserable,  and  the  resources 
of  its  government  are  exceedingly  small. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  landed  property  remain 
in  the  possession  of  a  few  families,  by  the  law  of 
primogeniture,  whilst  others  can  enrich  themselves 
by  industry  and  commerce,  the  number  of  inde- 
pendent persons  increases,  welfare  and  comfort  be- 
come more  general,  and  the  pecuniary  resources 
of  the  government  grow  in  the  same  proportion. 
Yet  the  injustice  of  primogeniture,  and  most  likely 
the  degeneration  of  families,  will  continue. 

But  justice  is  accomplished,  personal  happiness 
procured  to  the  greater  number,  and  the  greatest 
advantage  secured  to  the  government,  if  all  sorts 
of  privilege  be  banished,  every  individual  allowed 
to  employ  his  talents,  and  to  earn  the  profit  of  his 
labors,  and  to  spend  his  property  as  he  pleases. 
Under  such  circumstances  individuals  and  fami- 
lies will  disappear,  but  the  nation  will  flourish 
and  last.  There  will  be  talents  in  abundance ;  ac- 
tive and  intelligent  citizens  will  collect  riches,  and 
lay  great  weight  in  the  balance  of  national  pro- 
perty and  resources.  Yet  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  aristocracy  of  many,  founded  on  the  moral 
system  of  utility,  without  previous  education  and 
without  natural  sentiments  of  manners  and  refine- 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  237 

ment  is  the  least  agreeable.  As  rich  families  com- 
monly de'generate  and  become  soon  poor  again,  re- 
fined manners  are  neglected ;  even  the  fine  arts 
are  less  cultivated,  as  long  as  the  community- 
stands  in  need  of  pecuniary  resources.  Marriages 
are  formed  according  to  the  views  entertained  of 
wealth  and  comfort,  however  degenerated  the  par- 
ties may  be  under  republican  governments;  there- 
fore, particular  care  should  be  taken  in  education 
with  respect  to  social  refinement.  All  possible 
means  which  prevent  rich  families  from  degenera- 
ting, ought  to  be  pointed  out  and  attended  to. 
If  the  things  go  on  as  they  did  .hitherto  and  still 
do,  there  is  no  wonder  that  many  are  disappointed 
in  their  wishes  and  expectations. 

Natural  talents  and  dispositions  being  different, 
there  can  be  no  equality  except  that  before  the 
law,  which  is.  the  same  to  all,  and  equally  pro- 
tects the  poor  and  the  rich;  which  allows  to 
every  one  the  use  of  his  powers,  rewards  personal 
merit,  and  makes  every  transgressor  answerable 
for  the  disorders  he  commits.  The  natural  dif- 
ference of  mental  dispositions,  as  to  quantity  and 
quality,  and  the  innate  love  of  distinction  and 
superiority,  will  always  be  a  mighty  cause  of  pub- 
lic disturbances.  Rulers,  therefore,  ought  to  be 
very  careful  in  regulating  these  matters,  and  they 
ought  to  know  that,  without  morality  all  their  la- 
bor is  in  vain. 


2BS  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

Those  who  take  interest  in  the  duration  of 
public  prosperity,  will  highly  appreciate  riches, 
and  acknowledge  the  great  influence  and  power 
which  they  bestow  on  their  possesors,  be  these 
single  individuals  or  nations.  But  governors  will 
find,  that,  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  besides 
riches,  many  other  conditions  concerning  body 
and  mind  must  be  attended  to,  and  just  the  same 
as  are  necessary  to  the  improvement  and  preserva- 
tion of  individuals.  They  will  seriously  reflect 
on  what  Lord  Bacon  said  to  King  James,  of  the 
true  greatness  of  Britain,  viz.  that  in  the  measur- 
ing or  balancing  of  greatness,  there  is  commonly 
too  much  ascribed  to  largenees  of  territory,  to 
treasure  or  riches,  to  the  fruitfulness  of  the  soil  or 
affluence  of  commodities,  whilst  the  true  greatness 
requires  a  fit  situation  of  place,  and  consists  essen- 
tially in  population  and  breed  of  men,  so  that 
every  common  subject  should  be  fit  to  make  a 
soldier.  Supposing  even  that  war  might  be  avoid- 
ed, a  healthy,  intelligent  and  moral  breed  of  men 
is  still  the  most  essential  condition  of  national  du- 
ration and  happiness. 

The  legislators  in  America  might,  nay  ought 
to  be  particularly  attentive  to  the  laws  of  the  new 
settlers.  They  may  rely  on  the  laws  of  nature 
being  more  powerful  than  their  arbitrary  concep- 
tions. If  they  admit  the  races  of  men  indistinctly, 
what  they  never  do  with  animals,  the  country  will 
and  must  experience  more  trouble  than  commonly 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  239 

is  thought  of.  The  slave  dealers  know  that  one 
race  of  negroes  is  preferable  to  another,  and  why- 
should  it  not  be  the  same  with  the  white.  The 
^vil  will  not  be  remedied  in  educating  the  chil- 
dren and  in  establishing  poor-houses  for  the  heed- 
less adults.  The  number  of  troublesome  citizens 
will  rather  increase  by  such  means. 

The  influence  of  public  institutions  is  conceived, 
and  should  be  conducted  according  to  the  laws  of 
exercise,  (as  explained  above,  Sect.  I.  chap,  iii.) 
Institutions  in  order  to  produce  effect  must  be 
lasting  ;  but  every  sort  of  institution,  if  continued 
for  generations,  will  accustom  whole  nations  to 
certain  manners  of  feeling  and  thinking,  and 
strengthen  the  special  and  individual  powers  of 
the  mind. 

In  examining  this  subject,  the  following  propo- 
sitions may  be  laid  down  as  principles.  Nations, 
as  well  as  individuals,  act  from  feelings  ;  feelings 
do  not  result  from  intellect,  nor  intellect  from 
feelings  ;  and  every  faculty,  in  order  to  be  exer- 
cised, must  be  put  into  action.  It  may  be  added 
that,  generally  speaking,  the  selfish  feelings  are 
strong  enough,  and  scarcely  need  any  exercise, 
whilst  those  destined  to  forward  the  public  hap- 
piness are  commonly  weak  ; — farther,  that  lessons 
and  sermons  never  suffice  to  root  out  strong  feel- 
ings, and  seldom  hinder  their  disorderly  effects  ;— ^ 
finally,  that  natural  means  may  be  employed  with 


240  £BUCATI0N    Of    MAN. 

peculiar  advantage,  in  order  to  increase,  diminish, 
or  prevent  the  activity  of  any  fundamental  faculty. 

As  to  the  objects  to  be  taught,  two  general  re- 
marks may  be  made  :  it  is  a  great  error  to  con- 
fine education  to  intellectual  instruction ;  and, 
secondly,  it  is  wrong  to  attend  rather  to  theoreti- 
cal than  practical  knowledge.  Ignorance  is  cer- 
tainly a  fertile  cause  of  error,  but  society  at  large 
will  derive  greater  benefit  from  moral  improve- 
ment than  from  scientific  acquirements.  Theo- 
retical schoolmen,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  are  too 
much  attached  to  intellectual  instruction,  and 
not  enough  to  the  progress  of  moral  conduct.  In- 
tellect, however,  furnishes  means  to  gratify  the 
animal  nature,  as  well  as  the  nobler  feelings  of 
man.  There  should  be  schools  for  infants,  chil- 
dren and  youth,  where  positive  notions  of  things, 
their  usefulness  and  means  of  improvement,  are 
communicated  by  the  way  of  mutual  instruction  ; 
where,  at  the  same  time,  morality  is  shown  in 
action  and  imposed  as  a  duty  ;  where  refined  man- 
ners are  inculcated  ;  and  where  physical  educa- 
tion is  particularly  taken  care  of.  I  hope  the 
time  will  come,  when  every  one  will  learn  to  read, 
to  write  and  to  cipher,  in  order  to  be  able  to  ac- 
quire new  notions,  to  teach  others  that  which  he 
knows,  and  to  assist  his  recollection  ;  when  all 
knowledge,  extended  according  to  age  and  partic- 
ular classes  of  society,  will  be  practical,  from  the 
most  common  notions  of  household  affairs  and  ag- 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  241 

riculture,  to  the  deeper  conceptions  of  arts  and  to 
the  principles  of  sciences ;  when,  at  the  same 
time,  the  feelings  will  be  exercised  and  their 
actions  regulated  according  to  the  principles  of 
morality  ;  when  nothing  will  be  taught  or  learned 
merely  for  the  school,  but  every  thing  in  refer- 
ence to  universal  happiness  ;  when  the  religious 
feelings  will  be  cultivated  in  every  one,  not  by 
words  but  in  deeds,  not  by  superstitious  formali- 
ties, but  in  harmony  with  reason  and  with  the  in- 
tention to  improve  the  fate  of  mankind  ;  when 
even  the  animal  feelings  will  not  be  neglected ^  but 
only  employed  as  powerful  means  to  assist  the 
faculties  proper  to  man,  which  alone  are  the  aim 
of  our  existence  ;  finally  when  all  the  powers  of 
the  physical,  intellectual  and  moral  nature  will  be 
cultivated  in  harmony. 

From  the  preceding  remarks  it  follows,  that  the 
principles  of  excitement  are  the  same  for  govern- 
ments as  for  parents.  The  same  rule  too,  holds 
out  with  respect  to  the  direction  and  employment 
of  the  special  powers.  Whatever  contributes  to 
the  general  happiness  must  be  encouraged  and 
commended,  whilst  the  contrary  is  to  be  prevent- 
ed and  forbidden.  Education  can  neither  be  con- 
fined to  the  body  nor  to  intellect,  nor  to  the  feel- 
ings, but  all  sorts  of  powers  must  be  exercised  at 
the  same  time,  and  in  harmony  with  each  other 
Reason,  destitute  of  the  assistance  of  feelings,  re- 
mains cold,  and  feelings  without  reason  are  blind, 


t42-  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

and  prepare  numberless  disorders.  Finally,  the 
affective  and  intellectual  manifestations  of  the 
mind  depend  on  the  body.  Even  religion,  with- 
out being  combined  with  understanding,  unavoid- 
ably degenerates  into  superstition,  and  may  become 
a  frequent  cause  of  insanity  and  suicide.  Religion 
too,  as  well  as  intellect,  without  morality,  will  do 
more  harm  than  good  to  society  at  large,  in  nour- 
ishing party  spirit,  self  esteem,  and  all  sorts  of 
selfish  feelings.  Civil  governments,  who  know 
that  they  are  instituted  for  the  common  welfare 
in  this  life,  will  proclaim  the  same  rules  of  moral 
conduct  for  every  member  of  the  community,  and 
tolerate  every  religious  opinion,  provided  it  does 
not  disturb  peace  nor  injure  the  rights  of  others. 
They  will  confine  their  exertions  to  the  actual 
state  of  society,  and  not  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  life  to  come  ;  they  will  remit  all  conceptions 
of  that  kind  to  every  one's  own  conscience. 
There  will  be  no  creed  obligatory,  and  none  will 
enjoy  particular  advantages ;  in  other  words, 
there  will  be  no  religion  of  state.  I  also  think, 
that  such  governments  will  consider  it  as  right,  to 
pay  teachers  only  for  things  which  are  useful  to 
every  one,  but  refuse  to  charge  the  community 
with  expenses  for  knowledge  which  is  advanta- 
geous to  single  individuals  alone .  Spontaneous  do- 
nations,  or  voluntary  contributions,  however,  may 
be  allowed  to  propagate  knowledge  of  every  kind, 
whilst  the  only  duty  of  the  government  remains  to 
protect  every  member  of  the  community  in  his  ex- 


EDUCATION    OP    NATIONS.  243 

ertions,  as  long  as  they  are  harmless  to  others,  and 
conformable  to  general  justice.  Taxation  will  be 
proportionate  to  the  advantages  which  individuals 
derive  from  the  institutions  which  must  be  paid 
for.  The  things  indispensable  to  human  exist- 
ence and  preservation,  such  as  air,  light,  and  fuel, 
will  be  exempt  from  all  duties,  and  indirect 
taxes  in  general  will  be  abolished.  Nothing  but 
the  right  of  the  strongest,  and  selfishness,  can  keep 
up  the  things  as  they  commonly  are,  in  contra- 
diction with  the  principle  that  those  who  live  have 
a  right  to  exist  ;  that  every  one  should  earn  but 
the  profit  of  his  labors  ;  that  sinecures  should  be 
repealed,  and  idleness  despised. 

A  religious  reform  in  general  seems  necessary 
and  desirable.  Very  few  among  those  who  allow 
themselves  to  reason,  believe  that  the  priesthood 
has  the  power  of  sending  into,  or  excluding  from, 
heaven.  Christianity  and  common  sense  teach 
that  every  one  should  do  his  duty,  and  that  he  can 
do  no  more.  Religious  teachers,  therefore,  should 
be  considered  in  the  same  way  as  teachers  in  lan- 
guages, arts  and  sciences.  Every  one  who  has 
talent  and  time  might  study  religious  ideas,  write 
and  converse  with  others  on  them,  in  short,  do  as 
he  pleases,  provided  he  conducts  himself  in  con- 
formity with  the  principles  of  general  morality. 
Every  one  might  read  the  Scriptures  of  Revela 
tion,  and  form  his  own  opinion  ;  and  every  civil 
government  should  follow  the  example  of  the  Uni- 


244  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ted  States  of  America,  and  abolish  priesthood  as  a 
political  body,  or  as  a  necessary  division  of  the 
government.  Jesus  expressly  stated,  that  his  king- 
dom was  not  of  this  world.     (John  xviii.  36  ) 

I  am  aware  that  the  sacerdocy  will  object  to 
such  a  reform,  and  do  what  they  can  to  make 
man  believe  that  there  is  no  morality  without  re- 
ligion, and  no  religion  without  their  office,  and 
that  they  deserve  to  be  largely  rewarded.  I, 
however,  cannot  help  thinking,  that  man  has  been, 
and  still  is,  misled  by  priests,  because  he  is  natu- 
rally religious,  and  that  priests  ascribe  to  their  in- 
fluence what  belongs  to  the  power  of  the  Crea- 
tor. The  time  of  what  was  called  theocracy  is 
over.  I  can,  however,  conceive,  that  where  civil 
governments  decide  in  every  respect  what  people 
are  permitted  to  do,  religious  as  well  as  political 
opinions  are  dictated  ;  but  it  seems  natural  to  ad- 
mit, that  where  liberal  principles  prevail,  reli- 
gious and  civil  liberty  should  go  hand  in  hand. 
Yet  there  is  still  too  much  credulity  among  the 
great  number  of  the  congregations.  They  are 
occupied  during  the  week  in  their  worldly  con- 
cerns, and  on  Sunday,  without  troubling  them- 
selves much  with  examination,  they  will  listen  to 
their  clergyman  ;  if  he  speak  to  their  liking,  and 
according  to  their  feelings.  Some  teachers  will 
cry  against  the  great  pope  of  Rome,  but  make  at 
the  same  time  the  little  pope  in  their  pulpit,  in 
sending  all  who  differ  from  their  manner  of  think 


EDtrCATION    OF    NATIONS.  245 

iTig,  to  eternal  damnation,  whilst  they  declare 
themselves  and  their  followers  predestined  to  eter- 
nal beatitude  :  This  doctrine,  indeed,  is  comfort- 
able for  the  elect,  and  the  congregation  may  say 
amen  and  sing  Alleluia,  but  it  shows  also  that 
common  sense  is  sometimes  wanted  in  religious 
considerations.  I  think  it  very  wrong  to  leave 
these  matters  exclusively  to  a  privileged  profes- 
sion, whilst  they  ought  to  occupy  every  intelli- 
gent mind.  I  shall  mention  a  few  well  known  re- 
marks concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  Sunday,  or 
as  it  is  also  styled  Sabbath  keeping.  The  Sabbath 
day  is  allowed  to  be  a  noble  institution  of  Moses, 
who  ordained  it,  as  a  day  of  rest  for  man  and  ani- 
mals, hence  a  benevolent  regulation  for  all  classes 
of  working  people,  particularly  for  slaves.  The 
cessation  of  labor  on  one  day  of  the  week,  amelio- 
rates the  condition  of  all  laboring  classes,  and  con- 
tributes to  cleanliness,  to  the  preservation  of  health 
and  to  the  restoration  of  bodily  strength.  It  also 
gives  leisure  for  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious 
instruction  and  meditation,  and  in  fact  a  portion 
of  the  law  was  read  to  the  Jews  on  the  Sabbath 
day,  and  their  physical  welfare  was  attended  to. 
— No  one  can  think  that  God  in  creating  the  world 
became  literally  speaking,  fatigued,  and  wanted  to 
rest  and  refresh  himself:  (Exod.  xxxi.  17.)  and 
that  this  was  the  principal  motive  of  the  Mosaic 
law  in  reference  to  the  Sabbath.  It  is  only  to  be 
said  that  the  Jewish  language  abounds  in  figurative 
expressions.  ^ 

^2* 


EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

The  Sabbath  was  farther  commended  to  the 
Jews  in  remembrance  of  their  delivery  from  the 
bondage  in  Egypt,  and  as  a  sign  of  the  old  Cove- 
nant. 

Two  questions,  however,  arise  :  1,  whether  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  day  is  obligatory  to  the  followers 
of  Jesus  ;  and  2,  whether  it  is  incumbent  upon 
christians  to  keep  the  Sabbath  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Jews  did  ? 

It  is  a  fact  generally  known  that  the  day  itself 
has  been  changed  since  the  time  of  the  Apostles 
and  the  first  Christians.  (Acts  xx.  7.;  I  Cor. 
xvi.  2.) 

In  reference  to  the  2d  question,  it  seems  to  me 
that,  as  with  Jesus  the  old  covenant  ceased  and  a 
new  one  began,  the  Sabbath  as  well  as  circum- 
cision, both  signs  of  the  old  dispensation,  with  all 
ceremonial  observances  prescribed  for  the  Sabbath, 
are  abolished,  and  that  the  Sabbath  day  is  at  an  end 
altogether.  The  Jewish  temple  was  destroyed, 
the  Levitical  priesthood,  their  sentiments,  their 
church  government,  the  whole  tone  of  their  wor- 
ship, and  all  signs  of  the  Jewish  covenant  were 
gone.  If  the  Jewish  Sabbath-keeping  be  incum- 
bent upon  Christians,  I  think  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
year,  and  the  Jubilee,  too,  ought  to  be  kept  up. 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  247 

Farther,  we  read  that  Moses,  when  he  instituted 
the  Sabbath,  gave  at  the  same  time  various  other 
statutes,  commandments,  and  moral  laws,  which 
ought  to  be  either  kept  or  abolished  togeth- 
er. Jesus  rectified  a  number  of  the  Jewish  moral 
laws.  He,  for  instance,  forbid  polygamy,  which 
Moses  had  allowed  ;  he  abolished  capital  punish- 
ment of  adultery,  in  opposition  to  Moses,  and  he 
made  many  other  alterations  as  is  evident  from  the 
sermon  on  the  mount. 

Moreover,  if  the  Jewish  manner  of  keeping  the 
Sabbath  were  obligatory  and  so  important  as 
many  say,  it  appears  extraordinary  that  Jesus 
should  have  been  silent  about  it,  whilst  he  con- 
stantly admonishes  his  apostles  and  disciples  of 
the  great  commandments  of  love. 

Jesus  himself  did  on  the  Sabbath  several  things 
at  variance  with  the  Jewish  law.  He  went,  for 
instance,  with  his  disciples  through  the  corn-fields 
and  plucked  ears, — he  cured  diseases,  and  even 
said  that  the  Sabbath  was  made  for  man,  and  not 
man  for  the  Sabbath,  and  that  therefore  the  Lord 
of  man  is  Lord  also  of  the  Sabbath.  (Mark  ii.  21. 
28.)  He  even  admonished  his  disciples  to  assem- 
ble and  to  sing  to  the  glory  of  God  ;  they  were  to 
be  known  by  their  good  works  and  mutual  love. 

It  is  also  known  that  the  Apostles  and  first 
Christians  kept  the  Lord's  day  in  a  different  man 


348  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

ner  in  which  the  Jews  kept  their  Sabbath.  St. 
Paul  called  a  holyday,  on  the  New  moon  or 
the  Sabbath  days  a  shadow  of  things  to  come, 
(Col.  ii.  14 — 17.)  He  positively  stated  that  "he 
who  loves  one  another  has  fulfilled  the  law. 

It  was,  however,  a  practice  among  the  first 
christians  to  assemble  on  the  Lord's  day,  to  sing, 
to  break  bread,  to  gather  stores  and  to  be  instruct- 
ed ;  in  short  they  had  religious  assemblies  upon 
the  first  day  of  the  week  as  on  the  day  on  which 
Jesus  arose  from  the  dead  ; — as  a  festival  of  the 
Creation  ; — as  a  day  of  rejoicing  and  of  holy  wor- 
ship. But  a  cessation  upon  that  day  from  labor 
beyond  the  time  of  attendance  upon  their  meet- 
ings is  not  insinuated  in  any  passage  of  the  New 
Testament,  nor  did  Jesus  or  his  apostles  deliver 
any  command  to  their  disciples  for  the  discon- 
tinuance upon  that  day,  of  the  common  offices  of 
their  respective  professions.  If  it  was  their  inten- 
tion, they  ought  to  have  stated  it,  since  they 
preached  not  only  to  Jews  but  also  to  Gentiles,  but 
they  never  enforced  the  law  of  rest  as  in  the  Mo- 
saic laws. 

It  is  farther  to  be  remarked,  that  Pliny  the 
younger  in  his  letter  to  Trajan,  where  he  made 
a  report  concerning  the  Christians,  wrote  that  "  he 
discovered  nothing  but  that  they  were  accustomed 
to  meet  together  on  a  stated  day  before  it  was  light, 
and  sing  among  themselves  a  hymn  to  Christ,  as  a 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  249 

God,  and  to  bind  themselves  by  an  oath  not  to 
commit  any  wickedness,  nor  to  be  guilty  of  theft, 
robbery,  or  adultery,  never  to  falsify  their  words 
nor  to  deny  a  pledge." 

Finally,  history  tells  us  that  Constantine  first, 
A.  D.  321,  made  a  law  for  the  observation  of  the 
Sunday  throughout  the  Roman  empire.  The 
Sunday  was  declared  a  day  of  rest  in  cities  and 
towns,  but  the  country  people  were  still  allowed 
to  follow  their  work.  But  in  330  the  Council  of  Or- 
leans prohibited,  also,  country  labor,  and  declared 
it  unlawful  to  travel  with  horses,  cattle,  and  car- 
riages ; — to  prepare  food  ; — and  to  do  any  thing 
necessary  to  the  cleanliness  and  decency  of  houses 
and  persons. 

The  only  thing  I  contend  for  is  that  the  Sunday 
of  Christians  cannot  be  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  nei- 
ther as  to  the  day  nor  as  to  the  manner  of  Sancti- 
fication.  Yet  this  institution  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, but  enlightened  minds  will  take  greater 
views  of  it  than  mystical  persons  are  wont  to  do. 
It  is  childish  to  think  that  we  can  do  any  thing  to 
increase  the  beatitude  of  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
name  of  divine  service  should  be  done  away.  Let 
it  be  a  day  of  rest,  and  of  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  instruction  and  improvement,  and  of  reli- 
gious adoration.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  commur 
nicate  instructive  lessons  in  the  form  of  songs,  and 
the  music  may  excite  the  nobler  feelings,  but  it  is 


«'60 


EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 


pitiful  to  sing",  in  disharmonious  tones,  any  his- 
torical narrative  of  the  Jews,  or  incomprehensible 
metaphors  of  imaginary  minds.  In  short,  this 
institution  might  be  turned  to  the  greatest  benefit 
and  improvement  of  body  and  mind,  among  the 
lower,  as  well  as  the  higher  orders^  whilst  in  the 
ordinary  state  of  things  it  invites  the  former  to 
disorders,  physically  and  mentally  speaking. — I 
refer  the  reader  with  respect  to  my  ideas  on  the 
religious  and  moral  constitutions  of  Man,  to  the 
2d  Vol.  of  Phrenology. 

My  writings  in  general  may  prove  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  true  Christianity  alone  satisfy  my  mind, 
but  not  Christianity  disfigured  by  popery  or  by 
any  sacerdocy  who  substitute  their  inclinations 
for  the  will  of  God,  and  declare  themselves  infal- 
lible ;  nor  Christianity  that  degrades  the  Creator 
and  disturbs  peace  and  general  happiness.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  aim  of  civil  governments 
being  the  common  welfare  of  society,  it  seems  to 
me  that  intelligent  rulers  should  enact  regulations 
to  that  purpose  alone,  and  protect,  and  even  en- 
courage religious  ideas  as  far  as  they  are  condu- 
cive to,  and  in  harmony  with,  that  end  ;  but  they 
should  not  employ  religion  as  a  means  of  gratify- 
ing selfish  views,  nor  allow  the  priesthood  to  treat 
religion  as  a  trade  ;  and  certainly  they  should  not 
allow  the  priesthood  to  undermine  the  happiness 
of  man,  nor  any  religious  sect  to  enjoy  privileges, 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  251 

these  being  positively  interdicted  by  Christianity. 
The  public  wants  to  be  enlightened. 

In  giving  freely  my  opinion,  I  follow  the  prin- 
ciple of  Protestantism,  which  grants  the  use  of 
reason,  and  I  agree  with  them  who  think  that  no 
one  has  the  right  to  impose  his  religious  opinions 
upon  others  ;  that  true  religion  consists  in  the 
fulfilment  of  all  our  moral  duties ;  that  the  be- 
lief of  this  truth  having  been  revealed,  is  a  pow- 
erful motive  to  practice  morality,  and  that  this 
was  the  will  of  the  great  and  all- wise  Intelligence, 
who  arranged  the  universe,  who  gave  man  his 
moral  nature  and  the  laws  of  reason. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  pity  Mankind  for  not 
being  able  to  bear  the  moral  code  of  Christianity, 
and  for  not  being  ripe  to  enjoy  religious  and 
civil  liberty.  It  is  lamentable  to  see,  that  in 
some  countries  there  are  only  masters  and  servants  ; 
that  superstition,  ignorance,  and  poverty  are  em- 
ployed to  keep  the  people  in  subordination,  and 
to  gratify  the  selfish  views  of  their  civil  and  re- 
ligious leaders  ;  and  that  even  among  civilized  na- 
tions, where  the  best  known  principles  of  govern- 
ment are  in  vigor,  the  great  bulk  cannot  be  left 
to  themselves,  but  must  be  conducted.  I,  there- 
fore copy  from  Cowper's  letter  to  the  Rev.  Wal- 
ter Bagot  :  "  Do  I  hate  a  parson  ?  Heaven  for- 
bid !  I  love  you  all  when  you  are  good  for  any 
thing  ;  and  as  to  the  rest,  I  would  mend  them  if  I 


262  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

could  5  and  that  is  the  worst  of  my  intentions  towards 
them."  And,  from  the  hints  of  a  Barrister  to  the 
public,  "  Whoever  sets  the  best  example  of  indus- 
try, uprightness,  charity,  justice,  benevolence, 
mildness,  integrity,  and  all  those  practical  vir- 
tues which  are  the  basis,  immoveable  and  eternal, 
of  Christianity  ;  such  a  man  is  the  best  teacher  of 
religion  which  the  community  can  possibly  re- 
ceive." On  the  other  hand,  I  reject,  as  destruc- 
tive, every  doctrine  which  sows  a  spirit  of  secta- 
rian bigotry  ;  generates  superstition  ;  introduces 
discord  into  the  circles  of  domestic  life,  depre- 
ciates the  bonds  of  charity  and  peace,  or  even 
reprobates  all  practical  virtues  and  righteousness 
as  filthy  rags,  and  which  places  peculiar  doctrines 
above  the  authority  of  the  Gospel,  whose  great 
tendency  is,  and  ever  will  be,  to  excite  the  sinner 
to  repentance  and  reformation  ; — to  cultivate  be- 
nevolence and  justice,  and  to  link  together  man- 
kind in  the  bonds  of  peace  and  charity. 

A  favorable  change  is  wanted,  but  it  may  be 
asked,  who  shall  produce  it  ?  the  governments,  or 
the  nations,  severally  or  together  ?  Hitherto  nations 
are  too  much  accustomed  to  be  guided  ;  and  gov- 
ernors too  fond  of  commanding  and  imposing 
their  good  pleasure  as  law.  Both  parties  seem  to 
be  wrong.  Governments,  it  is  true,  may  succeed 
better  and  sooner,  since  they  can  follow  a  regular 
plan,  and  have  greater  means  of  execution.  But 
as  rulers  are  too  much  disposed  to  do  what  flat- 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  253 

tcrs  their  selfishness,  nations  ought  to  think  of  their 
own  welfare,  and  know  that  vox  populi  is  vox  Dei, 
Instead  of  expecting  every  improvement  from 
their  governors,  they  ought  to  work  at  their  de- 
liverance from  tutorage.  There  will  be  masters 
as  long  as  there  are  servants,  and  children  depend 
on  their  parents  as  long  as  they  cannot  gain  their 
own  livelihood.  It  is  conceivable  that  govern- 
ments like  to  rule  their  subjects,  but  these  are 
blameable  for  not  using  all  reasonable  means  to 
gain  and  deserve  their  independency.  They 
should  be  aware  that  a  liberal  government  lets 
the  people  act  for  themselves,  provided  the  com- 
mon welfare  does  not  suffer,  and  that,  on  the 
other  hand,  governments  are  despotic  in  propor- 
tion as  they  interfere  with  personal  liberty,  and 
prevent  the  public  good.  In  fact,  in  many  situa- 
tions, when  the  things  do  not  go  on  as  they  are 
wisned  for,  nations  may  accuse  themselves  rather 
than  their  governors.  By  perseverance  they  will 
always  obtain  what  they  deserve. 

Remarks  of  this  kind  are  also  applicable  to  the 
improvement  of  religious  creeds.  It  is  an  histori- 
cal fact,  that  the  priesthood  always  wishes  to  keep 
religious  ideas  stationary,  and  that  every  religious 
reform  began  with  individuals,  or  with  the  civil 
power.  This  will  be  thie  case  as  long  as  religious 
governors  do  not  keep  pace  in  knowledge  and 
moral  improvement  with  the  community  at  large. 
Anv  church  whose  tenets  were  composed  in  dark 
23 


254  EDUCATION    OP    MAN. 

ages,  and  adapted  to  the  capacities  of  ig-norant 
people,  will  be  divided  against  itself,  whenever  the 
public  become  enlightened,  and  it  must  end  in  its 
overthrow,  if  the  leaders  remain  in  ignorance,  and 
confound  the  aim  of  religion  with  the  means 
that  lead  to  it.  The  former  certainly  remains 
the  same  at  all  times,  and  amongst  all  classes,  but 
the  latter  must  vary  in  different  periods  of  civil- 
ization. It  is  as  lamentable  as  repugnant,  to  hear 
ignorant  teachers  speak  of  the  heavenly  Father  as 
endowed  with  qualities  for  which  every  reasona- 
ble person  would  disdain  his  neighbor.  The  evil 
is  great,  and  deserves  the  serious  attention  of  the 
civil  and  religious  governors. 

What,  then,  is  to  be  done  to  establish  civil  and 
religious  liberty  ?  Is  it  sufficient  to  proclaim  a  re- 
form ?  By  no  means.  The  French  tried  one 
constitution  after  another,  and  it  is  scarcely  deci- 
ded which  suits  them  best.  Civil  and  religious 
liberty  may  be  the  law  of  a  country  while  slavery 
and  religious  tyranny  continue.  It  happens  that 
there  is  sometimes  more  religious  freedom  under 
absolute  governments  than  in  republics.  Man 
does  not  like  to  obey  and  to  revere,  but  he  is 
fond  of  governing  others.  He  contends  for  free-, 
dom  for  himself,  but  thinks  to  have  the  right  to 
enslave  others.  When  will  stupidity  and  im- 
morality, severally  or  jointly,  cease  to  govern  hu* 
man  affairs  I 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  265 

It  is  certain  that  the  natural  dispositions  and 
their  activity  determine  the  progress  of  civiUza- 
tion  in  nations  as  well  as  in  individuals.  Ignorant 
people  are  fond  of  darkness,  while  enlightened  na- 
tions cannot  bear  measures  of  obscuration.  The 
French  revolution  abolished  all  external  decora- 
tions and  signs  of  distinction,  but  it  was  easy  for 
Buonaparte  to  introduce  them  again,  since  the 
love  of  approbation  is  an  essential  feature  in  the 
French  character.  Any  reform  succeeds  easily,  if 
it  be  in  harmony  with  the  most  active  powers  ; 
but  it  will  never  take  root,  if  it  be  contrary  to  the 
predominant  powers,  or  if  the  necessary  powers 
do  not  act.  The  doctrine  of  the  innate  dispositions 
cannot  be  taken  too  much  to  heart  by  those  who 
wish  to  exercise  an  influence  on  the  community. 
They  may  direct  the  given  powers  to  difterent 
applications,  but  they  can  neither  create  nor  anni 
hilate.  Many  historical  facts  will  be  explained, 
and  many  erroneous  opinions  of  government  will 
be  rectified,  when  the  innate  dispositions  are 
understood.  Then,  also,  not  only  the  different 
progress  in  the  various  branches  of  literature,  arts, 
and  sciences,  but  also  their  modifications,  in  dif- 
ferent nations,  will  be  easily  conceived. 

Amongst  many  instances  which  might  be  quoted, 
I  shall  mention  the  following.  The  reformation, 
undertaken  by  Lutker.  and  continued  by  Calvin 
and  others,  gained  more  ground  in  Germany  than 
m  France,  and  it  is  more  advanced  in  Scotland 


256  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

than  in  England,  and  it  turned  out  very  different- 
ly in  different  countries.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  marvellousness  and  of  the  reflective  powers  in 
the  Germans  and  in  the  English,  but  many  of  the 
former  will  begin  with  examining  how  far  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe,  and  give  up  rather  belief 
than  reason  ;  whilst  the  latter  take  belief  as  indis- 
pensable, and  reason  merely  on  interpretations. 
Self-esteem  and  love  of  notoriety  are  great  in  the 
English  and  French  ;  but  Self-esteem  is  propor- 
tionately greater  in  the  former,  and  love  of  appro- 
bation, combined  with  form,  in  the  latter.  The 
English,  in  their  display  of  show,  betray  their 
predominant  feeling,  and  wish  to  possess  or  do 
wbat  others  cannot ;  for  instance,  to  appear  very 
rich  in  keeping  horses,  carriages,  and  many  ser- 
vants, dressed  in  shoes  and  white  silk  stockings  ; 
whilst  the  French  wish  to  be  approved  of,  and  to 
attract  the  attention  of  others  by  a  fine  taste  in 
their  show-things.  Thus,  it  is  certain,  that  les- 
sons will  make  impression,  and  institutions  suc- 
ceed, in  proportion  as  they  are  adapted  to  the 
character  of  nations  to  whom  they  are  given.  De- 
fective heads  can  neither  excel  in  arts  and  scien- 
ces, nor  in  the  refined  principles  of  morality  or 
Christianity. 

The  influence  of  institutions  on  nations  does  not 
only  depend  on  their  being  adapted  to  the  innate 
dispositions,  but  also  on  their  duration.  Their 
effect  is  insignificant,  if  they  be  transitory  and  can-* 


EDtJCATlON    OF    NANIONS.  257 

not  form  habit.  Any  new  institution^  like  any 
new  doctrine,  in  order  to  be  of  permanent  useful- 
ness, must  become,  so  to  say,  incarnate,  or  be  in- 
fused in  the  minds  of  the  people  ;  but  then  their 
influence  is  certain,  since  the  innate  powers  being 
exercised  during  generations,  increase,  and  act 
with  facility.  I  copy  a  suitable  passage  from  the 
introduction  to  the  History  of  France,  by  Cha- 
teaubriand, read  by  himself  to  the  academic 
Francaise,  in  the  sitting  of  the  9th  of  Feb.  1826. 

"  It  has  been  said,  that  from  the  time  of  Vespa- 
sian to  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  the  period  during 
which  mankind  enjoyed  the  greatest  felicity. 
This  is  true,  if  the  dignity  and  the  independence 
of  nations  are  to  go  for  nothing. 

"Every  imaginable  kind  of  merit  appeared  at 
theheadof  the  empire.  Those  who  possessed 
those  qualities  were  free  to  undertake  any  thing 
they  pleased  ;  they  were  shackled  by  no  restraints; 
they  inherited  Nero's  absolute  power  ;  they  could 
employ  for  good  the  arbitrary  authority  which 
had  hitherto  been  used  only  as  an  instrument  of 
evil.  What,  however,  did  this  despotism  of 
virtue  produce  ?  Did  it  reform  manners  ?  Did 
it  re-establish  liberty.^  Did  it  preserve  the  em- 
pire from  its  approaching  fall  ?  No  ;  the  hu- 
man race  was  neither  altered,  nor  improved. 
Firmness  reigned  with  Vespasian,  mildness  with 

Titus,  generosity  with  Nerva,    grandeur  with 

2S* 


258  EDUCATION  OF    MAN. 

Trajan,  the  arts  with  Adrian,  the  piety  of  poly- 
theism with  Antonine,  and  lastly,  with  Marcus 
AuRELTUs,  philosophy  ascended  the  throne  ; — yet 
the  folfilment  of  this  dream  of  sages,  was  produc- 
tive of  no  solid  results  to  the  world.  No  amelior- 
ations are  durable,  none  indeed  are  possible,  when 
any  act  of  government  proceeds  from  the  will  of 
individuals,  and  not  from  laws  and  institutions  ; 
and  the  pagan  religion,  no  longer  supported  or 
corrected  by  austerity  of  manners,  transformed 
men  into  old  children,  destitute  alike  of  reason  and 
of  innocence. 

"  There  were,  at  this  period,  some  Christians  in 
the  empire,  they  were  obscure  and  persecuted, 
yet,  with  their  despised  religion,  they  accomplish- 
ed what  philosophy  upon  the  throne  could  not 
achieve.  They  instituted  laws,  corrected  man- 
ners, and  founded  a  society  which  exists  to  this 
day."  What  a  great  lesson  for  legislators  !  It  is 
easy  to  regulate,  but  to  give  the  feeling  for  the 
law,  requires  time  and  more  than  to  give  orders. 

In  the  examination  of  this  subject,  it  is  found 
that  religious  and  civil  regulations  are  degraded 
and  improved  in  the  same  degree,  and  by  the 
same  reasons.  Stupid  and  ignorant  people  are 
superstitious,  and  believe  in  the  good  pleasure  of 
their  absolute  rulers.  Whoever  is  not  able,  or 
does  not  dare  to  think,  or  does  not  feel  contradic- 
tions and  absurdities,  is  unfit  for  a  refined  religion 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  259 

and  civil  liberty.  Understanding,  indeed,  is  the 
first  condition  of  civil  and  religious,  as  well  as  of 
personal  and  moral  liberty,  and  ignorance  a  fer- 
tile cause  of  superstition  and  slavery.  Under- 
standing improves  plants  and  animals,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  the  improvement  of  nations  and  of 
the  nature  of  man.  The  Germans,  expressing 
civilization  by  the  word  aufklaerung  (enlighten- 
ing,) indicate  that  they  consider  intellect  as  the 
basis  of  improvement. 

The  great  point  in  this  discussion  is  to  deter- 
mine, first;  the  origin  and  cause  of  liberty,  and 
then  the  means  of  establishing  and  maintaining  it. 
None  of  the  faculties,  common  to  man  and  ani- 
mals, conceives  the  idea  of  civil  liberty  any  more 
than  that  of  religion.  These  conceptions  result 
only  from  the  human  powers,  and  are  retarded  in 
their  progress  in  proportion  as  they  are  influenced 
by  the  animal  powers.  The  animal  feelings  are 
selfish,  wish  for  personal  advantage,  like  to  take 
the  first  place  in  society,  and  dispose  to  religious 
intolerance  and  civil  despotism.  Hence,  a  nation 
is  unfit  for  liberty  in  proportion  as  the  animal 
powers  are  predominant  over  those  proper  to  man. 
Courage,  bravery,  and  stubbornness  to  death,  are 
by  no  means  sufficient  to  establish  this  happy 
state  of  society.  Even  the  higher  animal  feelings, 
as  attachment,  love  of  approbation,  cautiousness, 
acquisitiveness,  and  the  perceptive  faculties,  are 
incapable  of  securing  it.      The  animal  nature,  it 


S60  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

is  true,  is  powerful  to  oppose  despotism,  and  so 
far  conducive  to  liberty.  Whilst  timid,  poor,  and 
ignorant  people  remain  slaves,  the  courageous, 
intelligent,  and  industrious  seek  for  independency. 
In  consequence,  instruction  and  industry  are  the 
great  means  of  establishing  liberty,  whilst  igno- 
rance and  poverty  are  its  greatest  enemies.  In- 
dustry procures  riches,  and  these  enable  the  pos- 
sessor to  cultivate  his  understanding.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  astonishing  that  all  those  who  treat  of 
political  welfare  speak  of  industry  as  necessary 
and  favorable  to  liberty.  But  those  who  think 
that  industry  and  riches  are  sufficient  to  secure 
liberty,  are  mistaken ;  they  evidently  confound 
the  means  of  establishing  this  great  blessing  with 
its  primitive  source,  and  with  the  means  of  main- 
taining it.  Riches  alone  being  a  great  cause  of  de- 
generation in  body  and  mind,  are  incompatible 
with  permanent  liberty.  The  same  uncertainty 
of  things  continues,  even  if  riches  be  assisted  by 
(mderstanding,  since  the  motives  of  all  actions 
still  remain  selfish  and  of  the  animal  nature. 

With  the  faculties  proper  to  man  morality  be- 
gins, and  by  their  influence  the  animal  nature  is 
directed,  every  kind  of  privilege  abolished,  the 
number  of  public  officers  who  require  emoluments 
dimiaished,  every  individual  permitted  to  use  his 
talents  as  he  likes,  provided  he  does  not  injure 
others  ;  every  community  allowed  to  regulate  its 
special  concerns,  personal  merit  alone  rewarded, 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  261 

the  general  welfare  thought  of,  in  short,  civil  lib- 
erty acknowledged.  And  if  such  a  liberty  be 
granted  in  worldly  affairs,  it  is  still  more  necessa- 
ry in  things  and  opinions  relative  to  the  life  to 
come  and  religion.  The  effect  of  feelings  proper 
to  man  can  become  reasonable  only  by  its  union 
with  the  reflective  powers,  and  natural  morality 
is  a  corner  stone  of  the  preservation  of  any  so- 
ciety. 

On  the  other  hand,  though  the  human  nature  is 
the  source  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  yet  the 
faculties  proper  to  man  are  not  capable  either  of 
establishing  or  of  warranting  liberty.  To  that 
effect  they  need  the  assistance  of  instruction  and 
of  the  animal  powers,  particularly  of  industry,  or 
acquisitiveness,  self-esteem,  courage,  and  perse- 
verance. In  order  then  to  establish  and  maintain 
civil  and  religious  liberty,  the  whole  man,  his 
vegetative,  affective,  and  intellectual  faculties  must 
be  exercised,  but  the  animal  faculties  constantly 
subordinate  to  those  proper  to  man,  that  is,  natural 
morality  must  prevail. 

In  this  way  we  have  a  criterion  to  decide 
whether,  and  how  far,  a  nation  is  fit  for  civil  and 
religious  liberty  ;  whether,  and  how  far,  liberty 
which  is  granted  or  gained  can  last ;  and  whether, 
and  how  far,  governments  earnestly  prepare  the 
nations  for  that  happy  state.  In  the  same  way, 
those  who  wish  to  forward  liberty,  may  conceive 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

what  is  to  be  done  to  secure  general  and  perma- 
nent felicity,  and  why  hitherto  all  partial  means 
could  not  succeed.  Union  and  morality  alone  can 
save  the  future  happiness  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  Being  divided  or  without  morality  they 
will  have  the  fate  of  the  ancient  and  modern  na- 
tions of  the  old  world.  Intellectual  education 
alone  cannot  produce  the  desired  effect,  whilst  the 
animal  feelings  predominate  and  physical  educa- 
tion is  neglected.  Let  the  legislators  beware  of 
the  detrimental  consequences  of  selfishness,  luxu- 
ry, ambition,  vanity,  of  the  animal  feelings  in  gen- 
eral, of  all  causes  which  contribute  to  the  degen- 
eration of  body  and  mind  :  let  them  be  particular 
ly  careful  about  pauperism  on  one  side,  and  great 
riches  on  the  other,  about  idleness,  degeneracy  oi 
the  race  and  immorality.  Praying  alone,  andreli 
gious  ceremonies  will  not  remedy  natural  evils  and 
the  neglect  of  the  natural  laws. 

A  delicate  question  too,  viz.  whether  any  nation 
of  those  we  know  of,  can  bear  the  Christian  reli- 
gion in  its  greatest  purity,  and  a  republican  gov- 
ernment in  its  strictest  sense,  may  be  answered  in 
the  negative,  on  account  of  the  animal  nature  be- 
ing still  disproportionate  to  that  proper  to  man. 
In  speaking  of  a  republican  government  in  the 
strictest  sense,  I  mean  a  state  of  mind,  where  every 
one  sacrifices  his  private  interest  to  the  common 
welfare. 


EDUCATION    OF    NATIONS.  263 

In  supposing  then  that  any  ruler  may  have  the 
best  intention  to  fulfil  his  duty,  I  conclude  this 
chapter  with  repeating  the  points  indispensable 
to  his  success.  Let  him  become  acquainted  with 
human  nature  being  threefold,  with  the  innate- 
ness  of  the  affective  and  intellectual  faculties, 
with  their  dependence  on  the  cerebral  organiza- 
tion, and  with  their  modifications  in  the  nation 
he  governs.  Besides,  let  him  understand  that 
every  innate  power  tends  to  action,  but  that  the 
motives  of  the  same  action  may  be  very  different ; 
that  regulations  founded  only  on  truth  and  moral- 
ity can  last,  and  that  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  nature  of  man  must  be  cultivated  in  harmo- 
ny. Farther,  an  important  point  for  him  is  to 
know  to  employ  every  one  according  to  his  natur- 
al gifts  and  talents,  be  it  as  servant,  soldier,  arti- 
san, merchant,  artist,  teacher  of  any  kind,  legis- 
lator, superintendent  or  president.  He  also  must 
be  aware  that  various  talents  are  given  to  all  class- 
es of  society,  to  poor  and  rich,  to  country  peo- 
ple as  well  as  citizens  ;  and  that  natural  nobility 
and  personal  merit  of  talent  and  virtue  alone  de- 
serve distinction. 

In  republican  governments,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  electors  must  keep  in  mind  that  intellect  is  not 
morality,  that  individuals  must  be  judged  of  by 
their  actions  and  not  by  their  speeches,  in  the  same 
way  as  the  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit ;  and  that 
no  one  who  strives  for  private  interest  and  for- 


EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 


gets  the  common  welfare,  should  be  at  the  head 
of  public  affairs. 


CHAPTER  VII 


A    FEW    IDEAS    ON   PUBLIC    AND    PRIVATE  EDUCATION. 

Various  opinions  are  entertained  upon  the 
question,  whether  public  or  private  education  be 
preferable.  The  term  education  is  here  taken  in 
a  limited  sense,  and  the  answer  would  be  easy,  if 
education  were  what  it  ought  to  be.  In  the  ac- 
tual state  of  things,  the  greater  number  of  parents 
cannot  adopt  the  private  mode  of  education  for 
want  of  pecuniary  means.  They  must  have  re- 
course to  public  schools,  if  they  wish  to  give  to 
their  children  any  education  at  all.  The  question, 
then,  concerns  chiefly  the  richer  classes  of  society. 

There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  on  both 
sides.  Generally  speaking,  in  private  education, 
moral  conduct  and  religious  principles  may  be 
more  carefully  taught,  and  the  natural  disposi- 
tions better  exercised.  But  here  we  must  suppose 
the  governors  to  be  of  superior  ability.  Such 
persons,  however,  are  not  so  easily  found.  On 
the  other  hand,   private  teachers  and  servants 


ON   PUBLIC    AND    PRIVATE    EDUCATION.  265 

kindle  very  often  inferior  propensities,  which 
would  remain  inactive  were  the  children  sent  to 
public  schools.  Again,  as  the  education  of  boys 
and  girls  must  be  conducted  in  a  different  man- 
ner, particularly  in  large  towns,  several  day  or 
boarding-schools  become  necessary.  And  if  in 
these  the  moral  conduct  be  particularly  attended 
to,  they  will  combine  the  advantages  of  a  public 
and  private  education.  In  them,  physical  educa- 
tion can  be  better  attended  to  than  at  home  ; 
common  play  grounds  and  bodily  exercise  can 
be  more  easily  procured.  Such  abodes  are  com- 
monly in  healthy  situations,  and  better  teach- 
ers may  also  be  provided.  It  is  of  advantage 
to  children  to  afford  them  opportunities  of 
comparing  their  talents  with  those  of  others. 
When  alone,  they  easily  think  themselves  above 
all  other  children  ;  but  when  together,  they  often 
feel  their  inferiority.  The  less  intercourse  we  have 
with  others,  the  sooner  we  are  satisfied  with  our- 
selves. This  happens  with  children  as  well  as 
with  adults.  Those  who  have  travelled  with  re- 
flection and  without  prejudice,  lose  in  many  re- 
spects their  national  pride.  They  find  that  every 
where  there  are  good  and  bad,  ignorant  and  well- 
informed  persons.  Whoever  remains  confined  to 
his  own  small  circle,  thinks  all  other  society  infe- 
rior, partly  through  a  natural  attachment  to  his 
accustomed  manners,  and  partly  through  his  not 
knowing  what  others  are,  or  what  advantages  they 
possess. 

24 


2b6  EDUCATION    OF    MAN. 

Knowledge  of  the  world,  of  different  characters, 
of  manners  and  social  intercourse,  is  an  important 
point  in  education.  It  is  easily  acquired  in  public 
institutions.  Children  soon  learn  to  distinguish 
between  the  different  manners  of  feeling  and  think- 
ing of  their  companions. 

Greater  uniformity  in  manners,  more  mutual 
attachment  and  general  benevolence,  more  order 
and  greater  readiness  to  obey  and  to  depend  on 
their  superiors,  may  result  from  public  education. 
There  the  feelings,  in  general,  maybe  more  easily 
exercised  and  directed,  because  society  is  indis* 
pensable  to  that  purpose,  and  private  education 
can  never  afford  the  same  opportunity.  Finally, 
the  great  effect  of  emulation  is  entirely  lost  in 
private  instruction  ;  and  emulation  may  be  neces- 
sary to  some  children  in  order  to  push  them  on. 

Thus,  even  in  the  actual  state  of  things,  public 
institutions  are  preferable,  and  they  will  be  far 
superior,  if  once  regulated  according  to  sound  prin- 
ciples and  adapted  to  human  nature. 

Conclusion. 

The  great  object  of  education  is,  not  to  create, 
but  to  prepare,  to  develope,  or  to  impede,  and  to 
direct  the  natural  dispositions  :  vegetative,  affec- 
tive and  intellectual.  The  nature  of  the  funda- 
mental powers,  and  the  conditions  on  which  their 


ON    PUBLIC    AND    PRIVATE    EDUCATION.  267 

manifestations  depend,  must  be  known,  to  enable 
us  to  cultivate  and  direct  them.  The  difference 
between  the  feelings  and  intellectual  faculties,  is 
particularly  to  be  attended  to.  Then,  if  the 
means  of  excitement  and  those  of  direction  be  em- 
ployed, as  I  have  detailed  them,  arts  and  sciences 
will  improve,  moral  evil  will  diminish,  and  man- 
kind will  become  more  happy.  I  do  not  flatter 
myself,  however,  that  in  the  present  state  of  man- 
kind, the  most  perfect  education  can  abolish  all 
disorders.  Hence,  institutions  of  another  kind 
are  necessary,  which  I  shall  speak  of  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 


APPENDIX. 


ON  THE  CORRECTION  OR  REFORM  OF  MALEFATORS. 

As  individuals  differ  exceedingly  from  each 
other  in  the  innate  strength  of  their  faculties,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  adults,  as  well  as  children, 
if  entirely  left  to  themselves,  and  to  the  motives 
which  spring  up  in  their  own  minds,  would  not 
all  be  influenced  either  by  the  same  number,  or 
by  the  same  kind  of  motives,  nor  would  each  mo- 
tive  act  with  equal  force  in  all.  Besides,  the 
faculties  which  produce  the  lower  propensities, 
do  not  of  themselves  produce  good  actions  ;  and 
as  they  are  stronger  than  the  faculties  proper  to 
man,  legislation  is  necessary  to  direct  mankind. 
In  regard  to  many  particular  acts,  the  government 
must  command  what  is  to  be  done,  and  forbid 
what  is  not  to  be  done  ;  seeing  few  individuals 
possess  so  favorable  an  endowment  of  dispositions 
as  to  be  naturally  prone  to  virtue,  or  to  have  the 


DEFINITION   OP   LEGISLATION.  269 

law  written  in  their  hearts.  Now,  the  general 
aim  of  all  legislation  ought  to  be  the  happiness  of 
mankind,  combined,  as  far  as  possible,  with  that 
of  each  individual ;  or,  in  the  language  of  Phre- 
nology, it  ought  to  be  to  establish  the  natural  mo- 
rality of  man,  confirmed  by  true  Christianity. 
The  lower  animals  have  no  conceptions  of  morali- 
ty, because  they  do  not  possess  the  faculties  which 
produce  the  moral  sentiments  and  reason.  Hence, 
those  faculties  which  are  proper  to  man  alone, 
conceive  the  necessity  of  legislation,  and  without 
them  there  would  be  none  in  mankind  any  more 
than  in  the  animals. 

Definition  of  Legislation. 

I  take  this  expression  in  its  most  extensive  sig- 
nification, and  conceive  it  to  comprehend  the  reg- 
ulation of  the  manner  in  which  all  our  faculties 
ought  to  be  employed.  Positive  legislation  has 
been,  and  still  is,  very  different  in  different  coun 
tries.  The  same  actions  have  been  and  still  are 
considered  now  as  crimes,  and  then  as  virtues. 
The  first  great  object  is  to  distinguish  natural 
from  positive  laws.  It  appears  to  me  that  both 
ought  to  be  the  same,  and  that  the  natural  laws, 
in  as  far  as  they  are  known  and  admitted,  ought 
to  be  declared  positive,  and  to  guide  the  actions 
of  man.  No  one,  therefore,  should  endeavor  to 
make  laws,  but  only  to  discover  those  made  by 
the  Creator,  to  submit  to  them,  when  discovered, 
24* 


StO        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

as  to  his  will,  and  to  dispose  others  to  follow  this 
example. 

Positive  laws  are  divided  into  Divine  and  Civil. 
The  former  are  given  by  God,  the  latter  by  hu- 
man legislators. 

The  question  which  naturally  occurs  is,  whether 
there  ought  to  be  differences  between  the  natural. 
Divine,  and  civil  codes.  Hitherto  thinking  peo- 
ple have  not  agreed,  and  the  one  makes  war 
against  the  other  ;  but  I  am  of  the  decided  opinion 
that  mankind  cannot  become  happy  till  the  laws 
of  the  Creator  are  put  into  practice.  To  say 
that  the  revealed  law  is  not  the  same  as  the  natu- 
ral, is  to  suppose  that  God  is  not  the' Creator  of 
mankind,  or  that  he  has  been  in  contradiction 
with  himself  at  different  times.  Such  notions 
seem  to  me  absurd,  and  I  cannot  admit  any  inter 
pretation  of  the  revealed  law,  which  is  evidently 
in  contradiction  with  the  real  nature  of  man. 
Moreover, 'since  nf.an  cannot  create,  he  ought  not 
to  set  himself  up  as  an  inventor  of  laws  ;  nor  at- 
tempt to  control  the  course  of  Providence,  or  coun- 
teract the  nature  of  things.  As  already  said,  he 
should  try  to  discover,  and  having  discovered,  to 
submit  to  the  arrangements  of  the  Creator  with 
respect  to  his  vegetative,  affective,  moral,  and  in- 
tellectual nature. 


DEFINITION    OF    LEGISLATION.  271 

Civil  legislation  is  necessarily  divided  into  dif- 
ferent branches,  but  they  ought  all  to  have  con- 
stantly only  one  and  the  same  aim,  and  to  be  the 
result  of  one  and  the  same  spirit.  Hitherto  self- 
ishness has  been  the  principal  object  of  all  civil 
legislation,  and  of  every  branch  of  it.  Soldiers 
wish  for  war,  and  an  opportunity  of  spoliation ; 
lawyers  also  have  too  constantly  in  view  their  own 
special  advantages ;  and  the  members  of  the  ordi- 
nary professions  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  con- 
ceal, that  the  end  and  aim  of  all  their  exertions  is 
selfishness^.  The  same  anti-social  principle  is  vis- 
ible in  all  worldly  affairs ;  and  even  the  clergy, 
whose  employment  is  to  prepare  man  for  eternity, 
too  frequently  show  that  selfish  motives  are  in 
fact  the  mainsprings  of  their  conduct.  This  over- 
whelming flood  of  selfishness  must  abate,  or  the 
general  happiness  of  mankind  remain  an  impossi- 
bility. There  is  only  one  permanent  legislator, 
viz:  the  Creator;  and  whatever  erects  itself 
against  his  institutions,  or  deviates  from  them,  is 
usurpation  and  folly. 

It  is  certainly  a  difficult  task  to  discover  clearly 
the  law  established  by  Nature,  and  to  bring  all 
branches  of  legislation  into  harmony  with  the  Cre- 
ator's will.  Happily,  however.  Nature  has  i^ew 
laws;  but  it  is  of  great  importance  to  know  that 
she  never  admits  of  an  exception,  and  punishes  se 
verely  every  neglect.  This  subject  being  of  the 
highest  importance,  any  attempt  to  elucidate  it 


2*12  CORRECTION    OF    MALEFACTORS. 

cannot  be  considered  as  an  idle  occupation,  and  is 
the  true  object  of  a  philosophical  catechism,  which 
I  have  published  separately. 

In  this  summary  view  of  criminal  legislation, 
we  may  consider  legislation  in  three  points,  viz  : 
its  aim  ;  the  means  necessary  to  attain  it ;  and  the 
persons  subject  to  the  law. 

Aim  of  Legislation. 

Legislation  begins  with  the  sentiment  of  duty. 
In  my  opinion,  the  duty  of  man,  according  to  the 
will  of  the  Creator,  consists  in  general  Benevo- 
lence and  Reverence.  Hence  the  natural  law  re- 
quires more  than  the  civil.  Justice,  according  to 
the  latter,  is  merely  passive,  viz  :  not  to  take  from 
others  that  which  belongs  to  them ;  while,  accord- 
ing to  the  former,  we  are  obliged  to  do  to  others 
what  we  wish  they  should  do  to  us.  Thus  Chris- 
tianity coincides  with  the  natural  law.  Love  thy 
neighbor  as  thyself,  is  the  touchstone  of  all  legis- 
lation as  to  its  true  aim. 

Means  to  attain  the  Aim  of  Legislation. 

The  second  part  of  legislation  concerns  the 
means  necessary  to  attain  the  proposed  aim  ;  but 
this  point  is  not  yet  accomplished.  Either,  there- 
fore, those  who  have  it  in  their  power  do  not  ear- 
nestly wish  for  it,  or  they  have  not  intellect  enough 


MKANS    OF    PREVENTION.  273 

to  choose  the  necessary  means,  or  the  general  aim 
of  legislation  is  not  kept  constantly  in  view.  This 
field  is  extremely  extensive,  but  without  the  reach 
of  my  study.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  few  re- 
marks, with  respect  to  criminal  and  penal  legisla- 
tion, which  certainly  has  improved  in  modern 
times ;  first,  with  respect  to  the  means  of  prevent- 
ing crime;  and  secondly,  with  respect  to  those 
of  correcting  criminals.  '    ' 

There  were  ages  when  criminal  legislators 
thought  it  their  only  duty  to  punish  or  to  revenge 
themselves  on  those  who  were  disobedient ;  the 
animal  powers  dictated  the  penal  laws,  and  the 
feelings  proper  to  man  had  no  share  in  them. 
Now-a-days,  it  is  admitted  that  the  penal  code 
ought  to  have  for  its  objects  the  prevention  of 
offences  against  the  welfare  of  society,  the  correc- 
tion of  those  who  have  failed  in  their  duty,  and 
securing  the  community  against  incorrigible  mem- 
bers. This  aim  is  laudable ;  but  as  it  is  not  at- 
tained, we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  means  em- 
ployed to  effectuate  that  purpose  are  not  the  best 
that  might  be  chosen. 

Various  kinds  of  punishments  have  been,  and 
are  inflicted,  in  order  to  deter  men  from  commit- 
ting criminal  actions.  Malefactors  are  deprived 
of  their  personal  liberty,  and  are  confined  to  prison, 
for  a  shorter  or  longer  period ;  some  even  for 
life.     They  are  treated  with  more  or  less  severity ; 


274        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

some  remain  idle ;  others  are  condemned  to  hard 
work.  Some  are  exiled  or  transported;  others 
put  to  death. 

Experience,  however,  shows,  that  punishments 
alone  do  not  produce  the  desired  effect.  Even 
at  an  execution  for  stealing,  pickpockets  are 
sometimes  busy  committing  their  depredations.  I 
do  not  say  that  punishments  are  useless ;  I  only 
say,  that  they  by  themselves  are  not  sufficient  to 
prevent  faults  and  crimes.  Hence  governments 
must  have  recourse  still  to  other  means.  To 
choose  these  means  correctly,  it  is  necessary  to 
discover  the  causes  of  criminal  actions,  for  crimes 
will  cease  to  be  committed  as  soon  as  their  causes 
are  removed. 

The  most  important  way  of  preventing  crime, 
is  that  of  improving  mankind  by  every  possible 
means,  and  especially  by  those  spoken  of  in  the 
preceding  pages  on  education  in  general,  and  on 
that  of  nations  in  particular.  Let  the  inferior 
races,  whose  actions  are  stigmatized  by  crimes  or 
disorderly  living,  be  prevented,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, from  propagation  ;  for  it  is  a  fact  well  known 
to  those  who  have  attended  to  the  subject,  that 
the  organs  qf  the  animal  passions,  like  those  of  the 
other  faculties  of  the  mind,  are  hereditary.  More- 
over, let  ignorance,  idleness,  intemperance,  and 
poverty,  which  are  the  principal  causes  of  crime, 
be  prevented,  and  there  will  be  little  occasion  for 
prisons. 


MEANS    OF    PREVENTION.  275 

In  the  General  View  to  this  work,  I  have  con- 
sidered the  great  influence  of  ignorance  on  the 
moral  conduct  of  man.  Instruction,  indeed,  will 
greatly  improve  the  human  character,  and  the  fa- 
cility of  acquiring  it  in  our  days  is  a  great  bless- 
ing to  mankind.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  and  in- 
terest of  wise  and  paternal  governments  to  diffuse 
instruction  as  widely  as  possible,  according  to  the 
capacities  of  the  people,  and  according  to  local 
and  particular  situations ;  and  whoever  wishes  to 
promote  the  moral  conduct  of  mankind,  and  in- 
sure their  happiness,  will  favor  public  institutions 
for  useful  information.  But  knowledge  is  not 
virtue,  and  more  attention  than  hitherto  has  been 
given,  must  be  paid  to  the  moral  improvement 
of  mankind. 

It  is  both  more  effectual  towards  promoting  the 
welfare  of  society,  and  more  agreeable,  to  correct 
morals,  than  to  punish  crimes.  To  that  end  it 
ought  to  be  a  serious  aim  with  governments,  to 
adopt  means  to  exclude  idleness  and  intemperance 
from  society.  Children  should  be  accustomed  to 
sobriety,  and  the  practice  of  intemperance  despised, 
and  represented  as  degrading  a  sensible  being. 
Every  person  found  intoxicated  in  the  streets 
should  be  taken  up  and  confined  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  fed  on  bread  and  water. 

Persons  when  drunk  are  deprived  of  the  use  ot 
their  reason,  and  often  inclined  to  abuse  their  ani- 


2'?6        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

mal  propensities;  and  hence  the  v/elfare  of  so- 
ciety requires  them  to  be  placed  in  a  situation 
where  they  can  do  no  harm,  and  which  may  con- 
tribute to  their  correction.  The  criminal  records 
of  every  country  bear  evidence  of  flagitious  crimes 
committed,  and  much  misery  inflicted,  of  which 
drunkenness  was  the  proximate  cause.  Govern- 
ments are  therefore  wrong  in  licensing  number- 
less ale-houses  and  gin-shops,  and  in  affording 
great  facility  of  pawning. 

In  the  Chapter  on  National  Education,  I  have 
already  said,  that  in  a  well  regulated  state,  no 
poverty  ought  to  be  seen,  and  no  mendicity  toler- 
ated ;  that  each  citizen  ought  to  exercise  a  pro- 
fession, and  each  beggar  to  be  shut  up,  and  to  be 
forced  to  work  in  public  employments ;  that  char- 
ity is  misapplied,  and  idleness  rewarded,  if  in 
dustrious  people  be  obliged  to  support  the  poor. 
This  subject,  being  of  the  utmost  importance,  de- 
serves a  particular  examination,  and  the  repetition 
of  some  ideas  does  not  seem  to  be  out  of  place. 
The  law  obliging  the  rich  to  nourish  the  poor,  is 
an  indirect  infringement  of  personal  liberty,  and 
in  opposition  to  the  basis  of  a  free  government, 
which  admits  private  property,  and  encourages 
every  one  to  use  his  talents,  in  as  far  as  is  con 
sistent  with  the  general  happiness  of  the  nation. 
The  poor  laws  encroach  on  this  right,  and  do 
harm  to  society.  They  in  fact  hold  out  to  the 
profligate,  the  idle,  and  the  imbecile,  an  invitation 


MEANS    OF    PREVENTION.  211 

to  act  without  regard  to  the  consequences  of  their 
actions,  and  promise  them,  that  if  they  are  over- 
taken by  the  calamities  which  nature  has  attached 
to  heedless  conduct,  the  virtuous  and  considerate 
shall  be  made  to  bear  the  burden  for  them. 

If  the  poor,  on  account  of  their  right  to  per- 
sonal liberty,  cannot  be  prevented  from  marrying, 
the  rich,  for  the  same  reason,  cannot  be  forced  to 
nourish  them.  It  is  an  infringement  of  the  per- 
sonal liberty  of  an  industrious  citizen,  to  be  com- 
pelled to  support  a  lazy  drone.  If  the  poor  must 
be  permitted  to  marry,  after  the  consequences  are 
pointed  out  to  them,  then,  at  least,  let  every  one 
be  equally  free  ;  let  him  who  gets  children  pro- 
vide for  their  subsistence ;  and  let  him  who  labors 
reap  the  whole  fruits  of  his  own  industry. 

But,  it  may  still  be  said,  that  whoever  lives  has 
a  right  to  the  prolongation  of  his  days,  and  that, 
hence,  the  necessitous  must  not  be  allowed  to 
perish.  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
those  who  exist  have  a  right  to  partake  in  what- 
ever nature  produces.  But  civil  laws  are  destined 
to  keep  order,  and  to  regulate  property.  Now,  I 
am  willing  to  admit,  that  humanity  calls  upon  us 
to  preserve  those  who  actually  exist ;  but  it  ap- 
pears to  me  to  be  impossible  permanently  to  ame- 
liorate the  condition  of  the  poor,  except  by  pre- 
venting them,   by   some    means   or   other,   from 

excessive  propagation.     In  the  first  place,  It  is  a 
25 


278       CORRECTION  OP  MALEFACTORS. 

general  law  in  nature,  and  it  holds  good  in  the 
case  of  mankind,  as  well  as  in  every  other  species 
of  animals,  that  every  germ  produced  is  not  per- 
mitted to  prosper  and  to  multiply.  As  things  are 
now  managed,  however,  the  best  and  most  con- 
siderate of  the  race,  are  those  who  are  most 
restrained  from  multiplying  ;  because  they  see  the 
evils,  and  endeavor  to  avoid  them,  while  the 
worthless  and  unreflecting  indulge  their  propen- 
sities without  fear,  and  fill  the  world  with  misery. 
This  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  it  ought  to  be. 
Moreover,  for  the  sake  of  general  order,  sailors 
and  soldiers  are  prohibited  from  living  in  matri- 
mony, and  why  should  not  the  same  liberty  be 
taken  with  the  poor  ?  If  they  can  show  that  they 
have  the  means  of  supporting  a  family^  they  are- 
no  longer  poor,  and  the  interdict  would  not  apply 
to  them.  Many  things  are  forced  upon,  as  well 
as  interdicted  to  individuals,  for  the  sake  of  gen- 
eral happiness ;  and  this  being  the  principal  aim 
of  society,  I  cannot  conceive  a  reason  why  the  ab- 
ject poor  may  not  be  hindered  from  marrying, 
for  the  general  good,  just  as  they  are  excluded, 
for  the  same  reason,  from  directing  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  law  should  harmonize  with  the  manners 
and  morals  of  the  day,  the  punishment  proper 
tioned  to  the  crime,  and  no  hope  left  to  the  crim 
inal  to  be  pardoned. 


MEANS    OF    PREVENTION.  279 

Finally,  the  surest  and  most  universal  means 
of  preventing  crimes,  would  be,  if  selfishness 
could  be  made  subservient  to  general  benevo- 
lence, and  if  morality  could  become  the  leading 
aim  among  all  nations  ; — then  the  kingdom  of 
Heaven  would  in  fact  arrive.  The  influence  of 
this  principle  cannot  yet  be  felt  by  mankind  at 
large,  and  many  may  therefore  say.  Why,  then, 
do  you  speak  of  it  ?  I  answer.  Because  it  appears 
to  me  that  the  arrangements  of  nature  admit  of 
such  a  state,  and  that  men  require  only  to  under 
stand  and  practice  her  laws,,  to  bring  it  about 
and  as  the  tendency  of  the  mind  is  to  approxi 
mate  towards  truth,  and  to  appreciate  it  when 
discovered,  I  am  not  without  hope,  that  the  time 
may  come,  when  the  higher  sentiments  shall  pre- 
vail over  the  lower  propensities,  and  benevolence 
over  selfishness.  Truth,  whether  admitted  or  re- 
jected, is  and  remains  always  truth.  At  all  events 
no  encouragement  should  be  given  to  the  abuse 
of  the  lower  feelings,  nor  any  facility  offered  to 
commit  crimes.  Bigamy,  for  instance,  and  seduc- 
tion, are  facilitated  by  the  permission  of  marrying 
without  a  certificate  of  any  kind. 

I  am  convinced,  that  in  proportion  as  the  pre- 
ceding means  are  neglected  or  attended  to,  offences 
and  crimes  will  be  committed  or  prevented ;  and 
that  by  applying  them  in  practice,  mankind  will 
improve  their  condition  more  than  by  punishing 
malefactors,  and  praying  the  Heavenly  Father 


280       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

for  his  assistance,  while  they  neglect  the  natural 
means  of  preventing  crimes,  and  producing  good. 
The  blessing-of  God  will  follow  as  soon  as  we  sub- 
mit to  his  laws ;  but  prayers  for  it,  while  we  con- 
temn them,  are  impious  and  absurd.  Prisons  are 
not  become  useless  by  building  churches  and^by 
the  influence  of  Bible  and  tract  societies.  How- 
ever, I  do  not  mean  to  say,  that  Christianity  is  in- 
eflectual  in  preventing  crimes  ;  I  only  maintain 
that  all  means,  natural  and  supernatural,  should 
be  employed. 

J^atural  means  of  correcting  Malefactors. 

Let  us  now  examine  how  far  the  second  point 
of  criminal  legislation,  viz.  the  correction  of  mal- 
efactors, has  been  attained.  Experience  shows, 
that  punishments  alone  do  not  correct  delinquents, 
any  more  than  they  prevent  disorders,  and  tbat 
the  common  way  of  treating  criminals  depraves 
rather  than  improves  them.  This  truth  is  more 
and  more  perceived,  and  some  practical  results 
have  already  taken  place,  which  have  proved 
highly  beneficial  ;  and  I  hope  that  the  good  effect 
they  produce  will  encourage  their  adoption  in  all 
countries.  One  great  subject  of  regret,  however, 
remains,  that  the  nature  of  man  is  not  sufficiently 
understood,  and  that  in  consequence,  many  modi- 
fications of  treatment,  which  individual  malefac- 
tors require,  are  entirely  overlooked. 


MEANS    OP    CORRECTION.  281 

Ponnerly,  malefactors  of  all  kinds,  young  and 
old,  persons  seduced  by  strong  temptation  into 
crimes,  even  those  who  were  only  accused  and  de- 
tained on  suspicion,  and  inveterate  villains,  were 
shut  up  together.  In  many  prisons  they  were 
idle,  or  if  they  had  some  occupation  they  were 
generally  unprofitable,  sometimes  too  easy,  at 
other  times  too  hard,  often  dirty  and  unwhole- 
some ;  and  because  punishm-ent,  and  not  reform, 
was  the  principal  motive  of  confining  prisoners, 
they  were  treated  with  neglect.  Their  food  was 
not  sufficient,  and  sometimes  noxious.  Prisons 
were  sometimes  erected  in  damp  and  unwhole- 
some situations.  The  prisoners  were,  on  account 
of  ill  treatment,  affected  with  various  cutaneous 
and  scrophulous  diseases,  with  blindness,  dysen- 
tery, consumption,  typhus,  &c.  Such  aggrava- 
tions of  punishment  were  too  severe,  and  against 
the  intention  of  the  law. 

This  error  has  been  felt,  but  in  our  days  men 
are  falling  into  a'n  opposite  extreme.  In  many 
prisons  there  is  too  much  comfort,  and  not  pun^ 
ishment  enough.  Here  and  there  they  become 
houses  of  reward.  They  perhaps  appear  still 
uncomfortable  to  the  rich  administrators,  but  they 
afford  more  comfort  than  the  greater  number  of 
criminals  are  accustomed  to.  The  prisoners  are 
clothed,  secured  against  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather,  have  a  good  bed  to  rest  on,  and  are  bet- 
ter nourished  than  at  home.  Some  persons,  i»» 
g5# 


CORRECTION    OP    MALEFACTORS. 

deed,  commit  faults  in  order  to  be  taken  into  them. 
Such  prisons  fail  to  effect  their  purpose.  To  be 
confined  in  a  prison,  ought  always  to  be  a  disa- 
greeable situation  in  one  way  or  another.  A 
proper  arrangement  would  be,  to  have  in  each 
prison  a  variety  ol  apartments,  affording  different 
degrees  of  comfort  and  accommodation,  and  to 
put  every  atrocious  criminal  into  the  lowest  first, 
and  let  him  rise  to  the  higher  as  his  moral  im- 
provement proceeded.  This  would  be  a  practical 
illustration  of  the  great  natural  truth.  That  a  state 
of  vice  is  one  of  misery,  and  a  state  of  morality 
one  of  comfort  and  enjoyment.  Prisons  construct- 
ed on  such  principles  would  no  doubt  require  to 
be  extensive  ;  and  they  would,  in  their  first  erec- 
tion, be  expensive.  But  whether  would  a  nation 
derive  greater  ultimate  advantage  from  a  sufficient 
number  of  such  establishments,  to  correct  and  re- 
strain the  vicious  part  of  her  population,  or  from 
a  victory  in  a  war  about  a  sugar  island  ?  And 
the  sums  consumed  by  the  nations  of  Europe  in 
prosecuting  quarrels  which  have  no  natural  foun- 
dation, and  in  inflicting  misery  on  each  other, 
would  have  placed  a  penitentiary  in  every  depart- 
ment of  every  kingdom  !  Such  are  the  results  of 
the  dominion  of  the  animal  over  the  man  in  hu- 
man affairs. 

There  are  still  other  causes  which  prevent  the 
correction  of  prisoners.  Prisoners  are  taken  in 
ignorant,  idle,  poor,  and  disorderly,  and  are  dis- 


MEANS    OP    CORRECTION.  2S3 

missed  in  the  same  state,  or  perhaps  more  instruct- 
ed in  vice.  Being  together,  they  are  induced  to 
converse  ;  and  even  where  this  i-s  prohibited  when 
at  work,  they  take  advantage  of  every  moment, 
when  the  overseer  is  absent,  to  do  so,  or  they  find 
in  the  yard  an  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  their  companions.  They  tell  each  other  their 
crimes  and  tricks  ;  and  every  new  comer,  especially 
if  his  natural  dispositions  harmonize  with  that 
kind  of  instruction,  profits  by  such  lessons,  and 
his  corruption  is  soon  complete.  In  a  short  time 
the  novice  is  accustomed  to  live  intimately  with 
the  outcasts  of  mankind,  becomes  one  of  them- 
selves, and  then  all  shame  and  bashful ness  disap- 
pear. Tn  this  manner,  according  to  the  saying  of 
the  criminals  themselves,  prisons  are  schools  where 
all  sorts  of  vices  are  taught.  The  malefactors  be- 
come friends,  and  form  projects,  to  be  executed 
when  they  are  liberated ;  they  organize  bands,  and 
prepare  to  pursue  with  greater  audacity  their  for- 
mer criminal  life. 

The  greater  number  of  malefactors  who  are  lib- 
erated, are  incapable  of  gaining  their  livelihood. 
Their  immoral  habits,  their  idleness,  and  even 
sometimes  their  intemperance,  Jiave  been  increased 
during  their  confinement,  and  nothing  can  be  more 
natural,  than  that  they  should  yield  again  to  their 
animal  dispositions.  Nay,  some  are  forced  to  con- 
tinue their  depraved  manner  of  living,  to  escape 
dying  of  hunger      This,  for  instance,  is  the  case 


2S4  CORRECTION  OP  MALEFACTORS. 

with  those  who  are  branded,  and  publicly  dishon- 
ored. Who  will  give  employment  to  such  indi- 
viduals ?  Who  will  work  with  them  in  the  same 
shop  ?  If  it  seem  necessary  to  brand,  in  order  to 
know  whether  a  criminal  has  already  committed  a 
crime,  let  it  be  done  where  the  mark  may  easily 
be  concealed. 

Another  manner  of  treating  prisoners,  without 
correcting  them,  and  which  is  very  illiberal  to- 
wards neighboring  countries,  is  that  of  sending 
all  malefactors  over  the  boundaries.  Such  a 
course  of  proceeding  should  be  only  permitted  in 
cases  of  political  errors.  In  other  cases,  it  is  say- 
ing to  a  malefactor.  Do  not  steal  in  my  house, 
but  go  to  my  neighbor's,  and  do  what  you 
please. 

The  common  way  of  treating  criminals  gives 
rise  to  another  injustice  against  society.  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  mode  of  conducting  jails, 
those  who,  by  their  criminal  actions,  disturb  the 
general  peace,  live  at  the  expense  of  the  quiet  and 
honest  citizens.  It  is  indeed  shameful,  that  male- 
factors, who  are  commonly  stout  fellows,  and  in 
the  best  years  of  their  lives,  should  not  gain  the 
necessary  means  of  subsistence,  while  manufac- 
turers get  immensely  rich  by  the  employment  of 
other  people 


MEANS    OP    CORRECTION.  2S6 

Thus,  it  is  high  time  to  rectify  such  abuses. 
The  aim  of  all  prisons  for  malefactors,  who  are 
to  be  sent  back  into  society,  ought  to  be  only  one 
and  the  same,  viz.  correction.  But,  then,  in  order 
to  change  the  houses  of  Perversion,  which  all  com- 
mon prisons  are,  into  houses  of  Correction,  other 
regulations  must  be  put  into  execution,  and  the 
prisoners  should  be  kept  till,  in  all  probability, 
they  are  corrected. 

I  repeat  that  these  ideas  are  not  new,  but  they 
must  be  repeated  till  they  are  practised  every 
where.  First,  then,  let  the  causes  which  produce 
offences  and  crimes  be  removed.  Ignorant  people 
who  are  taken  up,  should  receive  instruction,  and 
their  attention  should  particularly  be  directed  to 
their  duty  in  society.  They  must  be  treated  as 
grown  up  children,  whose  ,  education  has  been 
neglected.  It  will  be  more  difficult  to  change 
their  habits  than  those  of  children,  but  they  are 
more  capable  of  feeling  the  difference  of  motives, 
and  their  will  may  exercise  a  greater  influence  on 
their  actions. 

Solitary  confinement  is  one  of  the  most  effectual 
means  of  improvement.  Let  it  not  be  said  that 
the  punishment  is  too  hard,  and  may  derange  the 
mental  dispositions  of  some  criminals.  This  will  be 
exceedingly  rare,  but  it  will  correct  the  greater 
number  of  them.  Let  the  directors  of  prisons 
be  competent  judges  of  human  perversity,  and  let 


286       CORRECTION  OP  MALEFACTORS. 

them  be  allowed  to  modify  the  severity  of  pun- 
ishment according  to  the  individual  characters  of 
criminals.  Let  even  the  committee  of  overseers  at- 
tend to  this  regulation,  and  give  relief,  if  necessary. 

Idleness  ought  not  on  any  account  to  be  toler- 
ated in  prisons.  Those  who  know  a  trade,  may 
continue  to  exercise  it ;  and  those  who  do  not 
know,  may  learn  one.  The  better  heads  may  su- 
perintend the  inferior,  and  become  their  masters 
and  teachers.  Every  prisoner  should  be  compelled 
to  work  to  pay  his  expenses.  If  they  gain  more 
than  is  necessary  to  supply  their  wants,  and  if 
they  have  placed  their  fellow  creatures  in  misery, 
those,  for  instance,  who  have  stolen  or  destroyed 
the  whole  property  of  a  family,  ought  to  be  obliged 
to  indemnify  them  as  far  as  possible.  Moses  order- 
ed the  thieves  to  be  slaves  for  a  certain  period  of 
indemnity.  Others,  who  gain  above  their  personal 
wants,  may  be  allowed  to  turn  it  to  the  profit  of 
their  family,  or  may  put  it  aside  to  receive  it  at 
their  exit.  Prisons  should  be  open  to  the  gratui- 
tous inspection  and  superintendance  of  intelligent 
and  benevolent  individuals  of  the  community,  or 
if  such  cannot  be  found,  the  prisoners  might  work 
to  pay  inspectors.  The  confinement  should  last 
till  the  occasional  causes  which  gave  rise  to  the 
offence  are  removed,  and  till  amendment  is  proba- 
ble ;  and  on  being  released,  the  prisoners  are,  for 
a  certain  time,  to  be  observed  by  the  inspectors  or 
the  police.     If  each  large  town  were  divided  into 


MEANS    OF    CORRECTION.  287 

districts,  and  several  of  the  respectable  inhabitants 
of  each  district  would  act  as  inspectors,  and  visit 
the  released  prisoners  who  come  to  settle  in  it, 
they  might  save  many  from  relapsing  into  crime. 

The  system  of  confining  prisoners  indefinitely 
till  corrected,  certainly  supposes  perfect  justice  in 
the  management  of  the  jails  ;  otherwise  persons 
might  be  detained  in  prison  from  improper  mo- 
tives, and  much  longer  than  necessary  for  amend- 
ment. Such  an  abuse  ought  to  be  most  carefully 
guarded  against ;  and,  perhaps,  the  best  of  all 
checks  to  its  existence,  might  be  found  in  the 
system  of  open  and  gratuitous  inspection  by  benev- 
olent individuals  above  recommended.  The  pub- 
lic could  never  conspire  to  do  injustice  to  an  in- 
dividual ;  and  while  his  confinement  was  contin- 
tinued  under  their  eye,  there  would  be  very  little 
chance  of  its  being  unjustly  and  unnecessarily  pro- 
longed. Or,  the  period  of  confinement  might  be 
mentioned  in  the  sentence,  leaving  power  to  the 
inspectors,  or  some  properly  constituted  authori- 
ties, to  shorten  it  on  proofs  of  amendment. 

The  efficacy  of  prisons  established  according  to 
sound  principles,  is  no  longer  speculative.  Penn 
first  showed  it  in  a  practical  way  at  Philadelphia. 
Several  States  in  America,  and  several  govern^ 
ments  in  Europe  have  followed  his  example,  and 
the  result  has  perfectly  answered  their  expecta- 
tions.     Relapses   of  malefactors  dismissed   from 


288       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

prisons  and  common  houses  of  correction  are  usual ; 
while  in  the  houses  of  correction,  conducted  ac- 
cording to  the  new  plan,  a  small  number  are  con- 
fined a  second  time,  particularly  when  they  are 
kept  for  some  time. 

The  new  method  of  treating  criminals  is  advan- 
tageous also  in  other  respects  to  society.  The 
prisoners  gain  more  than  they  consume,  and  being 
corrected,  they  no  longer  injure  orderly,  nor  se- 
duce innocent  persons. 

I  cannot  help  mentioning  a  singular  idea  which 
prevails  in  different  places,  where  means  of  public 
education  are  provided  for,  but  where  masters 
shall  be  required,  subject  to  a  committee,  to  expel 
from  school  any  pupil  who  shall  manifest  an  habit- 
ual and  determined  neglect  of  his  duties. 


'O' 


This  advice  does  not  seem  to  be  conformable  to 
Christianity.  Jesus  did  not  come  to  call  the 
righteous,  but  the  sinners  to  repentance.  The  par- 
able of  the  prodigal  son,  too,  is  given  in  a  quite 
opposite  spirit.  I  think  that  such  individuals 
should  be  particularly  taken  care  of,  and  not  let 
loose  upon  society  and  exposed  to  all  sorts  of  crimi- 
nal temptations.  Might  they  not  be  confined  to  a 
house  of  reform  and  accustomed  to  regular  habits  ? 
The  house  of  reform  of  Juvenile  delinquents  at 
Boston,  in  the  hands  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wells,  fur- 
nishes a  convincing  proof,  what  may  be  done  with 


MEANS    OF    CORRECTION.  289 

such  young"  offenders.  Blessed  be  those  who  save 
'their  fellow  creatures  from  the  precipice  of  per- 
dition, and  turn  them  to  the  path  of  righteousness. 

It  is  important  to  understand  human  nature, 
and  the  modified  characters  of  the  malefactors, 
in  order  to  treat  them  properly,  because  every 
measure  which  the  natural  constitution  of  each 
individual  renders  available  to  produce  amend- 
ment, may  require  to  be  employed.  A  knowledge 
of  this  kind  will  confirm  and  render  still  more 
useful  the  practical  views  of  several  intelligent 
benefactors  of  mankind.  The  reader  may  con- 
sult John  Howard  on  Prisons  and  Houses  of  Cor- 
rection ;  the  work  on  the  Prisons  of  Philadelphia, 
by  a  European  (Duke  of  Liancourt  ;  )  Theorie 
des  Paines  et  des  Recompenses,  par  Jeremie  Ben- 
tham  ;  An  inquiry,  whether  Crime  and  Misery 
are  produced  or  prevented  by  our  present  system 
of  Prison-discipline,  by  Thom.  Buxton  ;  the  An- 
nual Reports  of  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the 
Prison-discipline  Society  in  Am.erica,  &c.  ;  and 
he  will  find  in  Phrenology,  a  most  satisfactory 
theory  to  explain  and  to  direct  the  farther  appli- 
cation of  the  practical  maxims  of  these  and  other 
authors. 

Treatment  of  Incorrigible   Offenders. 

I  come  to  the  third  point  of  penal  legislation, 
viz.  that  which  has  for  its  aim   to  secure   society 


290  CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

against  incorrig"ible  individuals.  I  shall  not  enter 
into  the  vain  discussions  on  the  right  of  society  to 
inflict  capital  punishment.  I  take  it  for  granted, 
that  society  is  entitled  to  cut  off  one  of  its  limbs 
for  the  sake  of  the  happiness  of  the  rest,  if  there 
be  no  better  means  of  securing  that  end ;  but 
death,  as  the  last  evil,  ougnt  not  to  be  inflicted  till 
all  other  means  have  proved  ineffectual. 

Some  crimes  are  punished  with  death,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  repetition.  All  judicious  writers, 
however,  speak  with  regret  of  the  frequency  of 
capital  punishment,  and  deny  that  it  has  this  par- 
ticular effect.  Death  is  not  equally  frightful  to 
every  one.  Criminal  legislators  judge  of  others 
according  to  their  own  feelings  ;  they  fear  death, 
hence  they  think  that  all  men  do  the  same.  Ex- 
perience, however,  shows  that  to  many  persons 
death,  when  contemplated  at  a  distance  and  as  a 
contingency,  is  not  appalling.  Nay,  by  some, 
even  the  immediate  inflicton  of  it  appears  to  be 
regarded  as  a  small  evil.  The  unfortunate  wish 
for  it,  in  order  to  be  delivered  from  their  pains. 
Those  in  despair  destroy  themselves,  and  many 
oecome  the  martyrs  of  ambition  and  religion. 
The  laws,  themselves,  suppose  that  the  loss  of 
life  IS  little  in  the  eyes  of  many  criminals,  for 
means  are  taken  to  prevent  them  from  putting  an 
end  to  their  days,  which  they  would  do  rather 
than  be  confined  for  life.  It  is  certain,  that 
many  criminals   are  not  at  all   moved  by  the  sen- 


INCORRIGIBLE    OFFENDERS.  291. 

tence  of  death,  and  that  they  go  to  the  gallows 
with  perfect  calmness  and  resignation.  Inveter- 
ate criminals  common.y  say,  Dying  is  nothing,  we 
must  finish  in  that  way. 

It  appears  to  me-,  that  there  is  no  harm  in  de 
livering  society  from  villains,  particularly  from 
those  who  are  dangerous  to  the  existence  of  others. 
A  tree  that  brings  forth  no  fruit,  is  cut  down  and 
burnt ;  a  furious  animal  is  killed  ;  and  a  danger 
ous  fellow  may,  on  the  same  principle,  be  extir- 
pated. Yet  I  am  also  of  opinion,  that  capital  pun- 
ishment might  be  abolished,  and  replaced  by  other 
means  which  would  be  more  effectual  to  protect 
society.  There  is  an  inconsistency  in  the  present 
practice  of  inflicting  death  as  a  punishment  for  a 
great  variety  of  offences  ;  for  certainly  crimes  dif- 
fering greatly  in  atrocity  do  not  merit  exactly  the 
same  retribution.  If  it  be  true  that  crimes  must 
be  judged  of  according  to  the  perversity  of  the 
malefactor  J  and  according  to  the  mischief  which 
results  from  the  offence  ;  and  if  it  be  established 
as  an  axiom,  that  a  crime  consists  in  the  intention 
and  not  in  the  action  ;  all  crimes  which  are  at 
present  capitally  punished,  cannot  be  considered 
as  equal  in  guilt.  A  man  who  intentionally  kills 
his  benefactor,  or  another  who  kills  one  who  has 
excited  his  jealousy  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  his 
family  ;  an  inexperienced  girl  who,  in  a  moment 
of  despair,  destroys  her  offspring,  the  cause  of  her 
misery  for  life  ;  the  horrid  monster  who  strangles 


292        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

an  old  father  to  enjoy  his  inheritance  the  sooner  ; 
the  prostitute  who  assassinates  the  companions  of 
her  debauchery  ;  and  the  highwayman,  whose 
whole  life  is  only  a  succession  of  robberies  and 
murders,  who  spreads  desolation  and  devastation 
in  whole  districts,  cannot  be  considered  as  equally 
guilty.  Either,  therefore,  the  minor  offences 
should  be  visited  with  a  less  punishment  than 
death,  or,  to  preserve  consistency,  the  greater 
offences  should  be  followed  by  death  aggravated 
by  increased  horrors  ;  a  proposition  at  which  even 
the  sanguinary  spirit  of  legislation  would  revolt. 
But  as  it  is  said,  that  death  is  the  ultimate  extent 
of  judicial  authority  over  malefactors,  and  that 
every  punishment  beyond  it  is  cruelty,  it  ought 
not  to  be  inflicted  on  individuals  who  might  be  pre- 
vented from  doing  evil  by  other  means,  such  as 
confinement  and  education  ;  nor  on  those  equally, 
who  are  guilty  in  very  different  degrees,  particu- 
larly since  it  does  not  prevent  others  from  com- 
mitting similar  offences. 

If  the  proper  means  of  education  and  correction 
were  employed  according  to  the  law  of  nature,  the 
injustice  in  criminal  legislation,  now  mentioned, 
might  be  avoided  ;  and,  indeed,  there  would  soon 
be  no  occasion  for  capital  punishment  at  all. 
There  ought  to  be  a  particular  establishment  for 
those  who  are  confined  for  life,  regulated  by  sound 
principles.      It  may   be   found  necessary  to  treat 


INCORRIGIBLE  OFFENDERS.  29o 

some  with  severity,  yet  by  far  the  greater  number 
will  be  kept  in  order  by  less  severity. 

The  idea  of  punishment  is  closely  connected 
with  that  of  the  different  degrees  of  guilt.  If  the 
reformation  of  malefactors  were  the  principal  ob- 
ject of  the  penal  code,  the  possibility  and  means 
of  correction  would  be  the  first  object  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  the  extent  of  the  guilt  only  the 
second.  Punishment  would  then  be  viewed  as 
one  of  the  means  of  correction,  but  all  the  others 
would  likewise  be  examined  and  employed.  The 
greater  the  villain,  the  more  bare  would  be  taken 
to  correct  him.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  natural  to 
consider  the  different  degrees  of  guilt.  On  this 
point,  many  ideas  may  be  communicated  which 
are  not  adequately  understood  by  legislators,  be- 
cause they  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with 
human  nature. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  for  human  intelligence  to 
decide  with  perfect  justice,  in  regard  to  the  pre- 
cise extent  of  guilt  and  innocence  in  every  par 
ticular  case.  All  the  motives  and  causes  which 
have  determined  a  malefactor  to  commit  a  crime, 
cannot  be  known  by  man,  and  without  such  a 
knowledge,  it  is  impossible  to  form  a  perfectly 
just  estimate  of  the  exact  degree  of  guilt.  Such 
a  judgment  must  be  remitted  to  Him  alone,  who 
is  all-wise.      Although,  however,    human  wisdom 

has  limits,  it  must  extend  itself  as  far  as   possible. 
26^ 


294        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFATORS. 

In  penal  legislation,  extenuating  and  aggravating 
motives  are  admitted ;  and  indeed  some  indi- 
viduals, the  fatuous  and  insane,  are  not  held  as 
answerable  at  all  for  their  actions.  In  other  cases, 
actions  may  be  clearly  illegal,  which  nevertheless 
admit  of  extenuating  motives.  I  shall  speak  of 
several  grounds  of  extenuation  which  appear  to 
me  to  be  founded  in  nature,  but  which  nevertheless 
are  not  considered  as  such  in  different  countries. 

ON    ILLEGAL    ACTIONS    WITHOUT    GUILT. 

The  first  condition  upon  which  a  man  is  an- 
swerable for  his  actions,  is  that  he  is  free.  Here 
I  take  it  for  granted,  that  my  ideas  on  moral  lib- 
erty, such  as  they  are  developed  in  The  Philo- 
sophical Principles,  Part  II.  of  Phrenology,  are 
known  to  the  reader.  Whenever  moral  liberty  is 
wanting,  there  is  no  guilt.  This  is  the  case  at 
those  periods  of  life  when  the  human  faculties 
have  not  acquired  strength  enough  to  exercise 
will,  viz.  in  infancy,  or  when  the  influence  of  will 
is  suppressed  by  the  state  of  disease.  In  all  coun- 
tries, a  certain  age  is  fixed  when  punishment  may 
be  inflicted.  It  is  also  admitted,  that  the  dis- 
eased state  of  the  manifestations  of  the  mind  ex- 
cludes culpability  ;  but  the  extent  and  appear- 
ances of  this  state  are  not  sufficiently  under- 
stood. 


ILLEGAL    ACTIONS    OF    IDIOTS.  295 

I. — Illegal  actions  of  Idiots. 

Idiocy  is  Complete  or  Partial :  Instances  of  the 
former  kind  are  rare  ;  of  the  latter  numerous. 
Complete  idiotism  is  easily  distinguished,  and  does 
not  require  a  detailed  elucidation ;  but  the  com- 
mon manner  of  judging  of  incomplete  idiotism 
is  frequently  very  erroneous.  Legislators  and 
judges  are  not  yet  convinced  that  there  are  various 
faculties  of  the  mind,  and  that  the  manifestations 
of  each  power  depend  on  a  particular  part  of  the 
brain ;  that  one  or  several  organs  may  be  very 
active,  while  others  are  in  a  state  of  idiotism. 
These  facts,  however,  which,  although  not  gen- 
erally admitted,  are  true,  explain  why,  in  some 
individuals,  the  perceptive  faculties  and  the  infe- 
rior propensities  may  be  very  active,  while  the 
powers  of  the  moral  will  are  silent.  Such  indi- 
viduals are  like  animals,  and  cannot  be  moved  by 
moral  motives.  They  act  only  according  to  the 
feelings  which  they  possess,  without  being  able  to 
choose  between  motives.  Pinel  speaks  of  an 
idiot  who  had  the  most  determinate  inclination  to 
imitate  the  voice  and  gesture  of  all  persons  around 
her.  It  is  observed,  says  Fodere,  "That  by  an 
inexplicable  particularity  several  cretins,  endowed 
with  so  little  intelligence,  are  born  with  a  par- 
ticular talent  for  drawing,  musical  composition, 
rhyming,  &c.  I  have  seen,"  continues  he,  "sev- 
eral of  them,  who  learned,  by  themselves,  to  play 


296        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

pretty  well  on  the  organ  or  harpsichord ;  others, 
without  having  had  any  master,  knew  how  to 
mend  watches  and  to  make  various  mechanical 
instruments.  This  phenomenon  probably  results 
from  the  more  perfect  organization  of  the  organ  on 
which  such  or  such  an  art  depends,  and  not  at  all 
from  the  understanding.  For,  these  individuals 
do  not  know  how  to  read  books  which  treat  of  the 
principles  of  the  respective  arts ;  they  are  even 
disturbed  at  being  desired  to  learn  the  principles." 
(Trate  du  Goitre  et  du  Cretinisme.  Paris,  1800, 
p.  133.) 

I  have  mentioned  many  cases  in  my  work  on 
Insanity  (p.  120 — 133.  ;)  and  in  that  on  Phrenol- 
ogy, where  I  speak  of  destructiveness  and  acqui- 
sitiveness. Idiots,  although  mischievous,  are  not 
objects  of  punishment,  yet  it  is  rash  to  say,  that 
all  means  of  correction  are  useless.  They  ought, 
at  all  events,  to  be  prevented  from  doing  harm  to 
others  ;  and  as  they  cannot  be  left  to  themselves, 
there  ought  to  be  houses  of  security  for  such  un- 
fortunate individuals. 

There  are  cases,  in  which  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  decide  whether  there  is  or  is  not  will. 
"Persons,"  says  Dr.  Rush,  (Diseases  of  the  Mind, 
p.  268.)  "who  are  inordinately  devoted  to  the  use 
af  ardent  spirits,  are  irreclaimable  by  all  the  con- 
siderations which  domestic  obligations,  friendship, 
reputation,  property,  and  sometimes  even  by  those 


ILLEGAL  ACTIONS  OF  IDIOTS.         297 

which  religion  and  the  love  of  life  can  suggest  to 
them.  An  habitual  drunkard,  when  strongly 
urged  by  one  of  his  friends  to  leave  off  drinking, 
said,  Were  a  keg  of  rum  in  one  corner  of  a  room, 
and  were  a  cannon  constantly  discharging  balls 
between  me  and  it,  I  would  not  refrain  from  pass- 
ing before  that  cannon,  in  order  to  get  at  the  rum. 

''There  are  many  instances,"  continues  Dr. 
Rush,  "of  persons  of  sound  understanding,  and 
some  of  uncommon  talents  who  are  affected  with 
the  lying  disease.  Persons  thus  diseased,  can 
neither  speak  the  truth  upon  any  subject,  nor  tell 
the  same  story  twice  in  the  same  way,  nor  de- 
scribe any  thing  as  it  has  appeared  to  other  people. 
Their  falsehoods  are  seldom  calculated  to  injure 
any  body  but  themselves,  being,  for  the  most 
part,  of  an  hyperbolical  or  boasting  nature,  and 
not  injurious  to  the  characters  and  property  of 
others.  That  it  is^  a  corporeal  disease  I  infer  from 
its  sometimes  appearing  in  mad  people,  who  are 
remarkable  for  veracity  in  the  healthy  state  of 
their  minds,  several  instances  of  which  I  have 
known  in  the  Pennsylvanian  hospital.  Persons 
affected  with  this  disease,  are  often- amiable  in 
their  tempers  and  manners,  and  sometimes  benev- 
olent and  charitable  in  their  dispositions.  Lying, 
as  a  vice,  is  said  to  be  incurable.  The  same  thing 
may  be  said  of  it  as  a  disease  when  it  appears  in 
adult  life." 


298        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

The  time  will  come  when  several  malefactors 
will  be  declared  insane,  who  are  now  punished. 
The  only  difference,  however,  will  perhaps  be  in 
the  aim  of  their  confinement,  viz.  they  will  be 
shut  up,  in  order  to  be  prevented  from  doing  mis- 
chief, instead  of  being  shut  up  with  the  view  of 
making  atonement  to  justice.  The  laws  of  Nature 
are  severe,  but  they  are  just.  General  order  must 
never  be  allowed  to  suffer  for  the  sake  of  one  or 
several  individuals.  Even  these  persons,  how- 
ever, must,  as  much  as  possible,  be  allowed  to  en- 
joy their  natural  rights.  In  a  prison  at  Berlin 
(Stadtvogtey,)  we  found  a  boy  of  an  unfortunate 
cerebral  organization  ;  the  forehead  was  low. and 
narrow,  depressed  immediately  above  the  eye- 
brows, much  hollowed  sidewards  above  the  eyes, 
but  large  and  prominent  at  the  temples.  His 
countenance  indicated  slyness  and  malice.  Dr. 
Gall  said,  that  such  individuals  should  not  be 
left  at  liberty,  but  ought  to  be  kept  in  an  establish- 
ment for  security.  The  registers,  when  referred 
to,  proved  that  the  boy,  from  infancy,  had  shown 
the  most  obstinate  propensity  to  steal.  Such  in- 
dividuals, indeed,  become  more  incurable  upon 
every  relapse.  In  such  cases,  all  means  of  cor- 
rection should  be  tried  first,  and  if  these  are  found 
fruitless,  it  should  then  be  declared  lawful  to  de- 
tain them  for  life,  but  to  treat  them  with  hu- 
manity. They  ought  to  be  considered  as  persons 
affected  with  a  disease,  pregnant  with  danger  to 
society.     In  general,  nothing  but  amendment  of 


ILLEGAL    ACTIONS    OF    MADMEN.  299 

conduct  should  entitle  malefactors  to  return  to  the 
society  which  they  have  disturbed. 

Intellectual  idiotism  is  commonly  understood, 
but  there  is  also  a  moral  idotism.  Some  indi- 
viduals may  possess  intellect  and  strong  animal 
feelings,  but  very  weak  moral  sentiments,  which 
seldom,  if  ever,  enter  into  activity,  so  that  such 
persons  constantly  follow  their  animal  propensi- 
ties. They  are  deprived  of  sufficient  moral  mo- 
tives, and  cannot  be  considered  as  accountable  be- 
ings. Society  has  no  other  right  but  that  of  pre- 
venting them  from  disturbing  others. 

II. — Illegal  actions  of  Madmen, 

Madness  is  every  where  allowed  to  take  away 
guilt,  but  its  nature  is  not  sufficiently  understood. 
The  most  important  points  to  be  attended  to  are. 
that  it  may  be  general  or  partial ;  that  the  feel- 
ings as  well  as  the  intellectual  faculties  may  be 
deranged,  and  that  general  and  partial  insanity 
may  be  continual  or  intermittent.  General  and 
continual  madness  is  easily  distinguished,  but 
partial  and  intermittent  insanity  is  less  known 
than  it  ought  to  be. 

My  ideas  on  these  points  are  detailed  in  my 
work  on  Insanity,  and  I  refer  to  it  for  a  fuller  de- 
velopment of  the  subject.  Individuals  under  the 
involuntary   influence  of  these  faculties  through 


300        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

disease,  are  to  be  treated  as  patients  and  cured, 
not  as  criminals  to  be  punished. 


ON  ILLEGAL  ACTIONS  WHICH    ADMIT    OF  EXTENUATING 
MOTIVES. 

It  is  impossible  to  weigh  exactly  the  motives 
which  may  produce  illegal  actions.  In  examining 
whether  an  action  be  just  or  unjust,  we  commonly 
think  only  whether  it  is  conformable  to  the  law 
or  against  it.  Yet,  as  long  as  legislation  intends 
to  punish,  the  degree  of  guilt  attributable  to  the 
individual  cannot  be  entirely  overlooked  ;  for 
otherwise,  an  idiot  who  assassinates  would  be  lia- 
ble to  the  punishment  of  a  sane  person  ;  in  short, 
extenuating  motives  would  not  in  any  case  be  ad- 
mitted. 

Violent  passions  and  affections,  such  as  anger, 
fury,  jealousy,  rage,  &c.  are  considered  as  a  tran- 
sient madness,  and  are  justly  admitted  as  extenu- 
ating motives. — But  it  ought  to  be  known,  that 
some  persons  may  feel  internally  an  excessive  ex- 
citement of  these  affections,  who  restrain  the  out- 
ward expressions  of  them  ;  nay,  that  such  per- 
sons sometimes  suffer  even  more  than  those  who 
manifest  their  anger  externally,  and  who  tear  their 
hair  or  stamp  with  the  feet,  &c.  Shame,  despair, 
and  many  secret  affections  darken  the  spirit  of 
man,  as  much  as  sudden  and  violent  passions ;  and 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  301 

they  derange  equally  the  state  of  health  and  the 
judgment. 

Moreover,  the  same  exciting  cause  will  act 
violently  on  one  person,  and  scarcely  make  an 
impression  on  another,  according  to  their  natural 
constitutions.  Certain  kinds  of  food,  principally 
liquors,  excite  differently  the  individual  disposi- 
tions of  different  persons.  Wine  or  brandy  ren- 
ders one  courageous  and  quarrelsome,  another 
eloquent,  sincere,  amorous,  sorry,  gay,  &c.  The 
highwayman,  Peter  Petri,  a  companion  of 
ScHiNDERHANNEs,  sccmcd  to  be  insensible  in  his 
common  state  ;  but  when  he  had  taken  several 
glasses  of  brandy,  he  behaved  like  a  tiger,  and 
attacked  friends  and  enemies  indiscriminately. 
We  know  the  history  of  a  woman  who,  after 
drinking  some  glasses  of  brandy,  felt  a  strong  in- 
voluntary desire  to  become  an  incendiary.  Illegal 
actions  done  during  drunkenness,  at  least  the  first 
time,  should  find  in  it  an  extenuating  motive. 
The  guilt  is  greater,  if  the  effect  of  spirituous 
liquors  be  known,  and  if  they  be  not  avoided. 

The  most  intricate  situation,  with  respect  to  ex- 
tenuating motives,  is  when  one  faculty  in  particular 
is  extremely  active  in  individuals.  This  may 
happen  with  regard  to  every  power.  If  it  be  the 
case  with  a  superior  faculty,  such  as  benevolence 
or  reverence,  the  individual  may  be  said  to  be  for- 
tunate. Yet,  in  the  same  way,  every  other  feeling, 
21 


SOS       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

for  instance,  an  insatiable  desire  of  glory,  may- 
govern  the  whole  conduct  of  some  persons  ;  and 
again,  every  animal  propensity  may  become  exces- 
sively active.  This  state  is  not  insanity  ;  the  in- 
dividuals are  able  to  distinguish  the  influence 
which  excites  them,  and  have  power  to  restrain 
it,  and  are  therefore  answerable  for  their  actions  ; 
but  their  situation  is  an  unfortunate  one  ;  for  they 
are  called  upon  to  maintain  a  dreadful  struggle 
with  their  ruling  propensity.  I  know  of  a  family 
in  which  the  desire  to  drink  liquors  is  hereditary ; 
the  grandfather  and  the  father  have  killed  themr 
selves  by  hard  drinking,  the  grandchild,  when 
only  five  years  of  age,  manifested  the  same  incli- 
nation. There  are  similar  examples  with  respect 
to  acquisitiveness  and  destructiveness.  The  ques- 
tion, then,  is.  Whether  and  how  far  the  innate  dis- 
positions, when  in  this  manner  excessively  strong, 
are  to  be  considered  as  extenuating  motives  ?  At 
all  events,  it  is  certain,  that  not  only  violent  and 
sudden  aflTections,  but  also  various  other  excite- 
ments  ought  to  be  considered  as  extenuating  ;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  that  they  will  be  admitted  by 
degrees,  as  they  are  understood. 

Let  us  examine  a  few  examples,  among  the  in- 
finite number  which  might  be  quoted.  A  first 
lieutenant  was  inspired  with  a  passion  for  the  wife 
of  a  private  in  his  company.  This  virtuous 
woman  steadily  refused  his  propositions  and  im- 
portunities, without  saying  a  word  of  it  to   her 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  303 

husband.  One  day,  at  exercise,  the  lieutenant 
treated  the  husband  very  ill,  and  ordered  him 
several  times  to  be  bastinadoed.  As  the  husband 
complained,  he  was  treated  as  stubborn  and  mu- 
tinous, and  forced  to  be  silent  by  fifteen  other 
blows.  His  unfortunate  wife  told  him  the  inten- 
tion of  the  lieutenant.  From  Thursday  to  Sun- 
day he  meditated  and  projected  the  death  of  his 
wife  and  his  children.  He  admonished  his  wife 
to  confess,  and  to  go  to  the  communion  table.  He 
did  the  same.  He  was  always  mild,  a  good  father, 
and  an  excellent  husband,  but  during  these  days 
he  excelled  in  these  qualities.  On  Sunday,  after 
dinner,  he  proposed  to  his  wife  to  take  a  walk 
v/ith  him.  He  conducted  her  under  the  sallow- 
trees,  planted  along  the  glacis  of  the  citadel  at 
Breslaw,  and,  whilst  caressing  her  most  tenderly, 
he  pierced  her  heart  with  a  dagger.  Hp  went 
back  in  haste,  that  he^might  not  be  prevented 
from  sending  his  two  children  into  heaven.  He 
hoped  to  find  in  them  intercessors  hef0re  God. 
He  killed  them  with  a  little  axe  ;  placed  them  on 
the  bed,  their  arms  crossed  ;  went  then  directly 
to  the  guard,  with  a  countenance  of  satisfaction, 
and  told  what  he  had  done.  "  Now,"  added  he, 
''  may  the  Lieutenant  of  ***  make  love  to  my  wife. 
She  and  her  children  are  secured  against  seduc- 
tion and  dishonor.  They  will  be  obliged  to  me 
for  their  happiness,  and  pray  for  me  in  heaven." 
The  court-martial,  at  Breslaw  in  Silesia,  did  not 
think  of  extenuating  motives,  but  even  aggravated 


304       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

his  punishment,  by  depriving  him  in  prison,  and 
at  the  moment  of  execution,  of  the  presence  of  a 
clergyman  who  might  encourage  and  prepare  him 
for  death. 

The  work  of  Crichton  on  Insanity  contains 
several  examples  of  this  kind.  ''  Catharine 
Hanslerin,  forty-five  years  old,  was  an  inhabitant 
of  Donauworth.  She  had  been  twelve  years 
married  to  a  man  of  a  severe  and  unfeeling  temper, 
and,  excepting  a  fever,  and  some  slight  causes 
of  indisposition,  was  a  tolerably  healthy  woman. 
About  the  end  of  the  year  1785,  she  was  detected 
in  stealing  milk  in  the  village  where  she  lived. 
She  solicited,  in  the  most  earnest  manner,  that 
the  circumstance  might  be  concealed  from  her 
husband,  whom  she  dreaded.  It  was  promised, 
but  not  observed.  At  first,  he  was  told  of  it  in  an 
obscure  way,  but  he  afterwards  discovered  the 
whole  truth. 

"  The  detection  of  her  fraud  made  a  deep  im- 
pression on  her  mind,  not  only  on  account  of  her 
good  name,  but  also  on  account  of  the  treatment 
she  was  likely  to  receive  from  her  husband.  In 
consequence  of  this,  she  became  low  in  spirits, 
and  melancholy.  She  had  confessed,  but  it  did 
not  relieve  lier  mind.  She  prayed  often,  without 
knowing  what  she  said.  She  had  been  frequently 
seized  with  violent  headaches,  during  which  she 
was  not  conscious  of  what  she  did. 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  305 

"  Her  husband,  when  he  heard  of  her  stealing, 
beat  her  severely.  After  this  ill  treatment,  she 
went  to  bed,  trembling  for  fear,  and  dreading 
worse  usage  the  next  day.  Her  daughter,  a  little 
girl  seven  years  old,  came  to  her  bedside,  and 
prayed  with  her.  She  had  formed  the  resolution 
of  leaving  her  husband,  and  asked  her  daughter, 
if  she  would  stay  with  her  father  ?  This  the  girl 
refused  to  do,  as  she  was  afraid  of  him.  After 
praying  devoutly,  early  in  the  morning  she  left 
her  husband's  house,  and  took  her  daughter  along 
with  her,  and  also  her  infant,  that  was  only  two 
months  and  a  half  old.  As  she  was  about  to  de- 
part, she  again  asked  her  daughter  if  she  would 
not  rather  live  with  her  father  ?  The  girl  an- 
swered she  would  rather  die.  The  thoughts  which 
this  answer  occasioned  in  the  mother's  mind,  the 
misery  and  distress  which  surrounded  her,  the 
fear  of  what  might  happen  to  her  children  in  case 
she  died,  and,  at  the  same  time,  her  own  ardent 
wish  to  finish  her  existence,  all  thesQ|(thoughts 
caused  her  to  form  the  barbarous  resolution  of 
drowning  them. 

"  The  infant  she  took  in  her  arms,  and  being 
arrived  at  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  she  caused 
her  daughter  to  kneel  down  and  pray  to  God 
to  deserve  a  good  death.  She  then  tied  the  in- 
fant in  the  arms  of  the  girl,  blessed  them  by 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  them,  and  threw 

both  into  the  river.     She  afterwards  returned  to 

21* 


306       CORRECTION  OP  MALEFACTORS. 

the  village,  told  what  she  had  done,  and  was  ex- 
ecuted." 


"  A  young  woman,  twenty -three  years  of  age, 
was  sent  to  the  house  of  correction  at  Onolbach, 
1755.  She  was  received  with  blows  and  stripes. 
This  treatment  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  her 
mind,  that  she  began  to  detest  life,  and  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  it,  determined  to  commit  murder. 
She  thought  that  by  so  doing,  she  would  have  time 
allowed  her  for  repentance,  which  she  knew  she 
could  not  have,  were  she  to  destroy  herself.  She 
premeditated  her  design  in  cold  blood,  and  ac- 
complished it  on  another  woman  in  the  following 
manner. 

"  One  Sunday  she  complained  of  being  ill,  and 
requested  to  be  excused  from  attending  Divine 
service.  A  simple,  and  half  fatuous  girl  was 
allowed  to  attend  her.  She  convinced  this  girl 
that  there  was  no  hope  of  their  being  relieved 
from  their  present  miserable  situation,  but  by 
their  both  consenting  to  die,  and  she  proposed  to 
the  girl  to  kill  her  first.  The  girl  was  soon  recon- 
ciled to  the  proposition,  and  the  only  condition 
she  made  was,  that  her  companion  should  not  hurt 
her.  She  stretched  herself  out,  and  the  murder- 
ess accomplished  the  horrid  crime  of  cutting  the 
girl's  throat. 


EXTENUATING   MOTIVES. 


SO* 


"Upon  being  asked,  in  the  court  of  justice, 
what  could  have  induced  her  to  commit  so  horrid 
a  deed,  as  the  murder  of  her  fellow  prisoner  ?  she 
answered,  Fear  of  the  sharp  blows  and  pain  she 
knew  she  had  to  sustain  in  the  house  of  correction. 
She  thought  within  herself,  If  T  take  away  my 
own  life,  my  soul  is  lost  for  ever ;  but  if  I  murder 
another,  though  in  that  case  I  also  must  forfeit 
my  Ufe,  still  I  shall  have  time  to  repent,  and  God 
will  pardon  me.  When  she  was  asked.  Whether 
she  had  no  hatred  against  the  deceased,  or  if  she 
had  ever  received  any  ill-usage  from  her  ?  she  an- 
swered, That  the  deceased  had  never  done  her 
any  injury,  and  if  any  thing  vexed  the  deceased, 
she  always  came  to  her  to  make  her  complaints. 
Upon  being  asked,  if  she  slept  well  after  having 
committed  so  horrid  an  act  ?  she  answered,  That 
she  prayed  to  God  before  going  to  bed,  and  slept 
well,  and  when  she  awoke,  she  again  prayed.  She 
seemed  perfectly  calm  and  collected  during  her 
trial,  until  it  was  explained  to  her,  that  she  had 
drawn  down  the  eternal  wrath  of  God  upon  her- 
self. Then  she  wept  bitterly.  The  physician 
ascribed  the  crime  to  despair,  and  tczdium  vitce ; 
but  the  law  would  not  understand  the  hint." 

There  is  a  similar  fact  mentioned  in  the  journal 
which  is  published  at  Leipzig,  under  the  title 
Zeitung  fur  die  elegantie  Welt,  (N.  92.  1st.  Aug. 
1805.)  Amongst  a  great  number  of  malefactors 
confined  in  the  prison  of  Torgaw,  and  presented 


308        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

to  Dr.  Gall,  there  was  a  woman  who  had  drown- 
ed her  child,  a  boy  of  four  years  old.  Dr.  Gall 
examined  her  head,  then  took  the  hand  of  Profes- 
sor LoDER,  who  was  present,  and  put  it  upon  the 
organ  of  Philoprogenitiveness,  that  he  might  ex- 
amine its  size.  When  the  prisoner  had  retired, 
Gall  said  that  that  organ  was  great  in  this  woman, 
the  organ  of  Murder  (as  it  was  then  called)  small, 
and  that,  in  general,  her  head  was  well  organized. 
He  desired  to  be  informed  of  her  character  and 
capacities,  principally  with  respect  to  her  crime. 
The  magistrates  said  that  this  person  was  born  of 
poor  parents,  whom  she  had  lost  early,  and  that 
she  had  received  no  education.  When  grown  up, 
she  became  a  servant  in  the  village.  Every  one 
was  satisfied  with  her  conduct  and  behaviour.  Un- 
fortunately she  was  seduced,  and  had  a  child. 
The  being  to  whom  she  gave  life  was  the  cause  of 
her  misery.  She  was  dismissed  from  service,  and 
no  one  would  receive  her  on  account  of  her  child. 
For  a  long  time  she  did  not  know  how  to  endure 
her  situation.  She  loved  her  infant  with  the 
most  tender  affection,  though  she  had  reason  to 
detest  his  existence.  Finally,  a  poor  peasant  and 
his  wife  had  pity  on  her  ;  they  kept  the  child  in 
tlieir  house,  and  took  care  of  him  for  three  years. 
The  mother  found  a  place,  and  her  behaviour  was 
very  exemplary. 

The  child  increased,  and  gave  great  satisfaction 
to  the  adopting  father,  who  loved  him  very  much. 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  300 

This  was  enough  for  bad  tongues  to  say,  that  the 
peasant  was  his  father.  Satisfied  with  his  con- 
scious innocence,  he  despised  the  wicked  imputa- 
tion, but  this  was  not  the  case  with  his  wife.  To 
keep  peace  at  home,  he  was  obliged  to  give  the 
boy  back  to  the  mother.  She  begged  her  master 
and  mistress  in  vain  to  keep  her  ;  in  vain  she 
represented  to  them,  that  she  had  served  with  ex- 
emplary assiduity  and  fidelity.  She  was  dis- 
charged in  the  most  severe  season.  All  the  wealthy 
peasants  treated  her  with  the  same  severity.  She 
sold  whatever  she  possessed  to  feed  her  child  and 
herself.  He  decayed  through  cold  and  misery. 
In  this  situation  she  prayed  to  Heaven  to  let  both 
herself  and  him  die.  Her  maternal  affection  was 
overpowered  by  an  internal  voice,  which  said 
aloud,  that  the  only  means  of  saving  them  was  the 
destruction  of  her  child.  She  preferred  to  see 
him  die  suddenly,  and  in  a  moment  of  despair, 
she  carried  him  to  the  River  Elbe,  and  precipita- 
ted him  into  the  stream.  Exhausted,  she  fainted 
away,  and  was  found  in  this  situation.  As  soon 
as  she  recovered  her  senses,  she  accused  herself. 
During  her  detention  before  trial,  namely,  a  whole 
year,  she  behaved  very  well ;  she  manifested  dis- 
tinct and  deep  repentance  of  her  deed,  which, 
however,  she  did  not  consider  as  a  crime.  The 
clergyman,  who  visited  her  from  time  to  time, 
said  that  she  was  ignorant,  but  that  she  was  mild, 
and  very  docile.  The  superintendants  gave  ex- 
cellent testimonies  of  her  good  conduct.     These 


310       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

different  motives  determined  the  Court  of  Appeals 
to  change  the  first  judgment,  according  to  which 
she  ought  to  have  heen  beheaded,  and  they  con- 
demned her  to  confinement  for  life.,  without  being 
severely  treated.  Here  she  learned  to  write  and 
to  read,  and  her  whole  conduct  was  orderly. 

From  this  narrative  of  facts,  it  is  evident  that 
her  organization  was  not  in  contradiction  with  her 
manner  of  feeling  and  thinking,  and  that  she  de- 
served the  benefit  of  the  application  of  extenuating 
motives. 

There  is  no  illegal  action  which  has  greater 
and  luster  claims  to  be  treated  with  equity  than 
child-murder.  In  various  countries  penal  legisla- 
tion is  too  severe  in  this  respect.  I  am  far  from 
excusing  a  crime  when  it  is  voluntary  ;  but  I  con- 
tend also  for  extenuating  motives,  whenever  they 
can  be  admitted.  Legislators  and  judges  are 
commonly  more  or  less  severe,  according  to  their 
own  manner  of  feeling,  rather  than  according  to 
philosophical  principles.  Several  say  is  it  possi- 
ble to  imagine  a  more  barbarous  and  inhuman 
action,  than  that  of  a  mother,  deaf  to  the  cries  of 
nature,  destroying  her  child,  at  the  moment  when 
he  seeks  for  aliment  from  her  breast  ?  Others 
reply,  that  because  infanticide  is  a  crime  against 
nature,  and  because  the  hearts  of  all  mothers  re- 
volt at  the  idea  of  it,  it  is  impossible   that  it  can 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  311 

be  committed  except  in  a  moment  of  derangement, 
and  in  a  state  of  delirium. 

Infanticide  impresses  us  with  the  idea  of  bar- 
barity and  atrocity  with  the  greater  force,  be- 
cause it  seems  natural  that  the  love  of  offspring 
should  prevent  such  an  action.  It  is  true,  nature 
has  endowed  the  greater  number  of  women  with 
this  benevolent  propensity.  But  in  women,  as 
well  as  in  females  of  animals,  this  propensity  has 
different  degrees  of  energy.  Certain  cows  do  not 
suffer  their  calves  to  suck  ;  some  pigs,  cats,  rab- 
bits, &c.  kill  their  young,  while  other  females  of 
the  same  kind  of  animals  cry  for  several  days, 
and  refuse  to  eat,  when  they  are  bereft  of  their 
offspring.  It  is  a  lamentable  truth,  that  this  dif- 
ference of  motherly  love  exists  also  in  mankind. 
All  women  do  not  desire  to  become  mothers; 
some  consider  their  pregnancy  as  the  greatest  mis- 
fortune. Several  mothers  seek  various  pretexts,  in 
order  to  remove  their  children  out  of  the  house. 
There  are  others,  who  being  freed  from  shame, 
reproach,  misery,  and  many  inconveniences,  by 
the  loss  of  their  illegitimate  children,  yet  shed 
tears  for  a  long  time  after,  at  the  remembrance  of 
them.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  see  their  legiti- 
mate offspring  buried  without  a  pang.  Thus  it  is 
beyond  doubt,  that  natural  love  of  offspring  is 
very  weak  in  some  women.  It  is  therefore  wrong 
to  believe  that  infanticide  is  a  more  unnatural  act 
than  any  other  murder. 


312       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS.  i 

I  have  examined  thirty-seven  child  murderers, 
and  in  thirty  the  organ  of  Philoprogeny  was  very 
small.  It  does  not  follow  that  a  mother,  in  whom 
the  organ  is  small,  must  necessarily  destroy  her 
offspring.  My  object  is  only  to  observe,  that  this 
sentiment  is  not  strong  in  every  mother,  and  that, 
if  females,  in  whom  it  is  weak,  are  exposed  to  va- 
rious unfortunate  circumstances,  they  are  destitute 
of  a  great  motive  to  combat  the  internal  sensations 
which  may  impel  them  to  this  crime. 

Almost  all  laws  against  infanticide  are  framed 
on  the  supposition,  that  this  crime,  when  not  com- 
mitted in  a  fit  of  rage  and  hatred,  is  always  pre- 
meditated. But  is  it  true  that  these  two  are  the 
only  affections  which  exclude  premeditation  ? 
Different  actions  of  our  sex  may  be  cited,  in  an- 
swer to  this  question.  How  often  does  not  the 
sentiment  of  honor,  which  is  even  preposterous, 
dispose  man  to  hazard  his  life.  Several  have  de- 
stroyed themselves,  for  having  lost  a  woman  they 
loved.  Others  despair  from  disappointed  ambi- 
tion, or  from  the  loss  of  fortune.  Our  sex,  how- 
ever, is  the  strongest ;  we  are  seldom  destitute  of 
all  resources,  or  deprived  of  all  hope  of  finding  a 
companion  for  life.  How  different  is  the  situa- 
tion of  an  unfortunate  woman  ?  The  intellectual 
faculties  of  the  female  sex  are  commonly  weaker  ; 
hence  they  have  less  will  to  resist  their  stronger 
sensibility,  and  stronger  affections  and  passions. 
Their  sentiment  of  honor  and  shame  is  cultivated 


EXTENUATING   MOTIVES.  S13 

from  infancy,  exercised  and  exalted  ;  and  we  re- 
quire of  young,  timorous,  inexperienced  and  sen- 
sible creatures,  when  the  most  dreadful  event  over- 
whelms them,  to  be  cool,  calm,  and  reflecting. 
The  complaints  of  pregnancy,  and  many  terrible 
thoughts  during  it,  weaken  the  bodily  strength, 
increase  irritability,  and  disturb  the  mind.  When 
the  critical  moment  arrives,  they  are  most  fre- 
quently alone,  without  consolation,  overwhelmed 
with  grief  and  weakened  ;  how,  then,  can  we  ex- 
pect that  their  judgment  should  be  sound  ?  and  if 
such  an  unhappy  mother  destroy  the  feeble  exist- 
ence of  her  oflspring,  perhaps  in  a  fit  of  delirium, 
how  is  it  possible  to  confound  such  an  action  with 
the  most  horrible  of  crimes  ? 

Moreover,  men  and  women  are  more  irritable  at 
certain  periods.  In  my  work  on  Insanity,  I  have 
treated  of  these  periods  of  irritability  in  the  arti- 
cle on  Fits.  It  .coincides  with  the  period  of  the 
menses,  and  their  delivery  happens  at  the  same 
time,  viz.  when  the  mother  would  have  had  the 
tenth  periodical  return.  Thus  it  is  natural,  that 
at  this  period  the  unfortunate  woman  should  feel 
her  situation  more  strongly,  and  be  more  inclined 
to  take  a  fatal  resolution. 

Our  sex  can  never  be  exposed  to  such  a  misfor- 
tune ;  and  if,  as  it  is  the  case  in  certain  countries, 
we,  the  legislators,  think  that  it  is  not  expedient 
to  require  satisfaction  from  the  seducer,  and  if  we 

28 


314        CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

fear  to  be  unjust  against  perfidy,  why  do  we  fear 
to  be  indulgent  and  humane,  towards  the  frail  and 
disappointed  female  ?  It  is  even  conceivable,  that 
such  an  unfortunate  mother  may  continually  think 
of  the  ingratitude  and  perfidy  of  the  father  of  her 
child  ;  that  she  may  consider  how  he  has  deceived 
her  in  the  most  infamous  manner;  how  he  is  the 
cause  of  her  ignominy  and  misery;  how  he  for- 
gets his  forfeit,  whilst,  in  some  countries,  the  laws 
do  not  afford  her  any  protection  against  him ;  and 
how  his  stratagems  are  styled  merely  love  in- 
trigues. May  not  indignation  trouble  her  under- 
standing, and  excite  derangement  of  her  mind. 

Indeed,  if  it  were  not  so  difiicult  for  a  mother 
to  take  such  a  desperate  resolution,  infanticide, 
the  result  of  illegitimate  pregnancies  and  of  per- 
fidy on  the  side  of  seducers,  would  be  much  more 
frequent.  Hence  it  is  but  just  to  take  into  con- 
sideration the  internal  conflict  which  may  have 
deranged  the  senses  of  a  child  murderess,  and  to 
appreciate  all  extenuating  motives.  The  ideas  on 
infanticide,  which  Dr.  Hunter  has  detailed  in  a 
letter  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  deserve 
the  attention  of  every  criminal  legislator.  I  agree 
that  it  must  be  punished  as  murder,  when  it  is 
committed  with  premeditation,  with  mature  re- 
flection, in  the  complete  use  of  moral  liberty,  with- 
out an  urgent  provocation,  and  through  mere  de- 
pravity of  morals.  In  this  case,  the  legislator  de- 
serves all  thanks  for  protecting  the  child  who  is 


EXTENUATING    MOTIVES.  315 

without  support  and  defence.  But  it  is  important 
to  know  how  to  distinguish  the  different  circum- 
stances which  accompany  this  action,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  very  often  infanticide  admits 
of  many  extenuating  motives. 

Lying-in  hospitals,  where  every  woman  with 
chiW  is  taken  in  and  brought  to  bed,  without  be- 
ing obUged  to  say  who  she  is  and  whence  she 
came,  and  foundling-hospitals,  often  prevent  in- 
fanticide. In  countries  where  such  establislunents 
are  wanting,  child-murder  is  more  frequent  than 
in  others  where  they  exist.  These  institutions, 
however,  tend  so  much  to  weaken  the  motives  to 
moral  restraint  furnished  by  the  obligation  to  sup- 
port and  to  cherish  offspring,  that  it  may  be  fair- 
ly questioned  whether  the  evils  they  produce  m 
this  point  of  view,  are  not  greater  than  those  they 
prevent  in  the  other. 

In  order  to  prevent  child-murder,  there  is  a 
law  in  certain  countries,  which  obliges  pregnant 
girls  to  discover  their  situation  to  some  accouch- 
eur or  midwife.  If  they  do  not  fulfil  this  formal- 
ity, they  are  supposed  to  have  the  intention  of 
committing  infanticide.  In  other  countries,  the 
proprietors  of  houses  are  answerable  for  pregnant 
girls  who  live  in  them.  They  are  thus  required 
to  know  the  state  of  their  locatories. 


316       CORRECTION  OF  MALEFACTORS. 

Unfortunately  legislators  are  often  in  the  same 
situation  as  physicians  who  attend  incurable  dis- 
eases. They  try  uncertain  means,  rather  than  do 
nothing.  The  law  which  obliges  women  to  inti- 
mate their  state  of  pregnancy,  is  in  contradiction 
to  nature.  It  is  not  necessary  to  mention,  that 
there  is  no  need  of  such  a  law  with  respect  to  girls 
of  the  town.  These  have  lost  their  bashfulness, 
and  will  go  to  the  lying-in  hospitals  to  be  deliver- 
ed. Such  a  regulation,  therefore,  must  be  intend- 
ed for  timorous,  bashful,  and  decent  women,  who 
have  been  seduced.  Now,  the  feeling  of  honor 
and  bashfulness  is  considered  as  the  best  safeguard 
of  female  virtue,  and  is  constantly  cherished  ac- 
cordingly; nevertheless,  when  such  a  girl  falls, 
she  is  required,  under  pain  of  punishment,  to  make 
her  shame  known.  There  are  men  of  mature  age 
who,  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  would  confess 
certain  diseases  to  their  most  intimate  friends. 
How,  then,  can  the  law  be  so  severe  on  females 
for  not  confessing  a  circumstance  which  they  are 
taught  to  look  upon  as  more  disgraceful  than  any 
disease  ?  Besides,  when  we  consider  that  such 
unfortunate  girls  are  frequently  actuated  by  a 
strong  feeling  of  the  ignominy  and  misfortune  they 
bring  on  their  family  by  their  misconduct,  we 
ought  to  recollect,  that  their  obstinacy  in  conceal- 
ing their  state,  may,  in  truth,  be  allied  more  near- 
ly to  virtue  than  to  crime. 


EXTENUATING   MOTIVES.  317 

Thus,  if  extenuating  motives  are  in  any  circum- 
stances to  be  admitted,  in  no  cases  will  they 
be  more  truly  applicable  than  in  those  of  infanti- 
cide. 

In  my  work  on  Insanity,  I  have  shown,  that 
suicide  in  many  cases  is  the  effect  of  a  corporeal 
disease.  It  then  admits  extenuating  motives 
Criminal  legislators,  if  better  acquainted  with  it 
than  they  commonly  are,  certainly  will  modify 
the  laws  upon  the  subject.  These  'very  rarely 
are  of  much  efficacy  in  deterring  those  who  wish 
to  end  their  days,  and  are  no  punishment  for  them 
after  death  ;  but  it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference 
to  whole  families,  to  have  the  stigma  of  alliance 
with  a  malefactor  forced  upon  them,  when  in  fact 
they  have  only  had  the  misfortune  to  be  connected 
with  a  diseased  individual.  For  details  on  thi^ 
subject  I  refer  to  my  work  on  Insanity, 


28* 


318  coNCLUsioir. 


CONCLUSION. 


The  considerations,  examined  in  the  Appendix 
of  this  work,  tend  to  show,  that  legislation  in 
every  branch  ought  to  have  only  one  aim,  viz. 
the  general  happiness  of  mankind,  and  that  of 
each  individual,  as  far  as  it  is  compatible  with 
the  former ;  that  penal  legislation,  in  particular, 
ought  to  be  corrective ;  that  in  prisons,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  are  to  be  sent  back  into  society, 
all  possible  means  of  correction  should  be  em- 
ployed; that  capital  punishment  might  be  abol- 
ished, and  the  crimes  for  which  it  is  inflicted  pre 
vented,  by  proper  establishments.  As  punish 
ment,  however,  is  still  the  object  of  the  penal  code, 
I  have  treated  of  the  different  degrees  of  guilt 
which  may  be  implied  in  criminal  actions ;  and  of 
some  illegal  actions  that  admit  of  extenuating  mo- 
tives, such  as  suicide  and  infanticide.  From  this 
Appendix,  too,  it  may  be  inferred,  how  important 
and  necessary,  for  legislators  and  judges,  is  the 
study  of  man. 


THE    END. 


WORKS  OF  THE   SAME  AUTHOR 

REPUBLISHED    IN    BOSTON 
BY  MARSH,  CAPEN  AND  LYON 

I.  Phrenology,  or  the  Doctrine  of  the  Mental  Phe- 
nomena. Vol.  I.  Physiological  part.  Vol.  H.  Philo- 
sophical part. 

H.  Outlines  of  Phrenology. 

in.  Philosophical  Catechism  of  the  Natural  Laws  of 
Man. 

OTHER  WORKS 

PUBLISHED     BY    THE     SAMB    AUTHOR    IN    ENGLISH!      TO     BE 
REPUBLISHED    AS    SOON    AS    PRACTICABLE. 

I.  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,  with  eleven  plates,  8vo. 
14s. 

H.  Appendix  to  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,  with  seven 
lithographic  plates,  3s. 

HI.  Observations  on  Insanity.      10s. 

IV.  Phrenology  in  connection  with  the  Study  of  Phys- 
iognomy. Part  I.  Characters  with  34  lithographic 
plates,  Royal  8vo.     22s. 

V.  Art.  of  the  For.  Quart.  Review  on  Phrenology, 
with  notes.      Is.  6d. 


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